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<A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://feeds.feedburner.com/poliscifiradio/episodes?format=xml"><font color=blue>PoliSciFi</font></A><BR> <A NAME=weekly2></a> <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="#weekly2"><font color=blue><HR NOSHADE width="150"></font></A> <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://will.illinois.edu/mediamatters/podcast"><font color=blue>Bob McChesney</font></A><BR> <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://archive.kpfk.org/parchive/xml/ringfire.xml"><font color=blue>Ring of Fire</font></A><BR> <A NAME=end></a> <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://feeds.kcrw.com/kcrw/ls?format=xml"><font color=blue>Harry Shearer</font></A><BR> <A NAME=failed tryouts: Best Show on WFMU, Bob & Dancast, The Complete Guide to Everything, Extra Hot Great, Firewall & Iceberg, F Plus, The Fort, How Was Your Week?, Indoor Kids, Left Handed Radio, Little Dum Dum Club, Mike & Tom Eat Snacks, Pop Culture Happy Hour, RadioLab, Walking the Room, Who Charted?> <A NAME=secondstring></a> <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="#secondstring"><font color=blue><HR NOSHADE width="150"></font></A> <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://www.againstthegrain.org/program-archive/past-programs"><font color=slategray>Against the Grain</font></A><BR> <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://feeds.feedburner.com/WTBeginnings?format=xml"><font color=slategray>Beginnings</font></A><BR> <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://archive.kpft.org/xml/pg.xml"><font color=slategray>Geoff Berg</font></A><BR> <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://www.bestoftheleftpodcast.com/feed/"><font color=slategray>Best of the Left</font></A><BR> <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://www.thenation.com/podcast/rss/292"><font color=slategray>The Breakdown</font></A><BR> <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://feeds.feedburner.com/comedydeathrayradio?format=xml"><font color=slategray>Comedy Bang Bang</font></A><BR> <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://feeds.feedburner.com/therearesomewhocallmetim?format=xml"><font color=slategray>Tim Corrimal</font></A><BR> <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://feeds.feedburner.com/CitizenRadio?format=xml"><font color=slategray>Citizen Radio</font></A><BR> <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://feeds.feedburner.com/ComedyAndEverythingElse?format=xml"><font color=slategray>Comedy &ee</font></A><BR> <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://feeds.feedburner.com/DougLovesMovies?format=xml"><font color=slategray>Doug &hearts; 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"Fringe" :(<BR> "The Grapes of Wrath"<BR> "Gunsmoke" - "Cale"<BR> "Gunsmoke" - "Comanches Is Safe" <BR> "Gunsmoke" - "Deputy Festus"<BR> "Gunsmoke" - "Eliab's Aim"<BR> "Gunsmoke" - "The Jailer"<BR> "Gunsmoke" - "Mae Blossoms"<BR> "Gunsmoke" - "Major Glory"<BR> "Gunsmoke" - "Mistaken Identity"<BR> "Gunsmoke" - "Now That April's There"<BR> "Gunsmoke" - "The Prisoner"<BR> "Gunsmoke" - "Us Haggens"<BR> "Gunsmoke" - "Prarie Wolfer"<BR> "Harold and Kumar Go to White Castle" :(<BR> "Harold & Kumar Escape from Guantanamo Bay" :(<BR> "The Hidden" :(<BR> "I've Heard the Mermaids Singing"<BR> "Jackie Brown"<BR> "Jaws" :(<BR> "Jesus of Montreal" :(<BR> "The Killing Time" :(<BR> "Lost Horizon" :(<BR> "The Man in the White Suit"<BR> "The Man who Came to Dinner" :(<BR> "Manhattan" :(<BR> "Mannix" :(<BR> "Matinee"<BR> "The Matrix" :(<BR> "Memento"<BR> "Metropolis"<BR> "Mission: Impossible" - "The Astrologer" "Mission: Impossible" - "The Emerald"<BR> "Mission: Impossible" - "The Frame"<BR> "Mission: Impossible" - "The Freeze"<BR> "Mission: Impossible" - "The Killer"<BR> "Mission: Impossible" - "The Legend"<BR> "Mission: Impossible" - "The Mercenaries"<BR> "Mission: Impossible" - "Operation Rogosh"<BR> "Mission: Impossible" - "The Photographer"<BR> "Mission: Impossible" - "The Town"<BR> "Mission: Impossible" - "Two Thousand"<BR> "Mission: Impossible" - "The Traitor"<BR> "Mission: Impossible" - "The Visitors"<BR> "Monsters Inc" :(<BR> "My Man Godfrey"<BR> "Mystery Men" :(<BR> "Notting Hill"<BR> "Office Space"<BR> "Paper Chase"<BR> "Paper Moon"<BR> "PeeWee s Big Adventure" :(<BR> "Potemkin"<BR> "Robocop"<BR> "Rocky Horror Picture Show" :(<BR> "Roots" :(<BR> "Sherlock"<BR> "Shogun" :(<BR> "Shredder Orpheus" :(<BR> "Slacker"<BR> "They Live"-d-<BR> "This Island Earth" :(<BR> "Time after Time" :(<BR> "To Kill a Mockingbird" :(<BR> "Trainspotting"<BR> "Tron: Legacy"<BR> "Twilight Zone" TV<BR> "True Romance" :(<BR> "Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?" :(<BR> "Who's the Caboose?"<BR> "Zoolander" :(<BR> <BR><BR> Brickhouse BBQ<BR> Cafe la BellItalia<BR> Koffee Kup in Stoughton<BR> <A NAME=moviesTV></a><hr noshade width=175><BR> <BIG><B><I><A HREF="#moviesTV"><font color=blue>Movies/TV</font></a></i></b></big><BR><BR> <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://www.titantv.com/"><font color=blue>TV listings</FONT></A><BR> <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://www.thedailypage.com/movies/listing.php"><font color=blue>Movie listings</FONT></A><BR> <A HREF="#list"><font color=blue>Wanna watch</FONT></A><BR><BR> <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://www.ebertpresents.com/episodes"><font color=blue>At the Movies</FONT></A><BR> <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://www.netflix.com/WiHome?fcld=true"><font color=blue>Netflix</FONT></A><font color=white>GTY49M9</font><BR> <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://www.youtube.com/user/mosfilm"><font color=blue>MosFilm</FONT></A><BR> <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://instantwatcher.com/"><font color=blue>Instant&nbsp;Watcher</FONT></A><BR><BR> <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://www.marcustheatres.com/theater.cfm?theater_id=2205"><font color=blue>Eastgate</FONT></A><BR> <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://www.marketsquareodanaroad.com/movies.html"><font color=blue>Market $quare</FONT></A><BR> <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://www.orpheumtheatre.net/films.php"><font color=blue>Orphium</FONT></A><BR> <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://www.marcustheatres.com/Theatre/TheatreDetail/141/?theatres=Point+Cinema+-+Madison&zipResult=141"><font color=blue>Point</FONT></A><BR> <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://www.union.wisc.edu/film/"><font color=blue>UW</FONT></A>&nbsp; <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://cinema.wisc.edu/"><font color=blue>Cinematheque</FONT></A><BR> <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://www.highway18.com/"><font color=blue>Hwy18 Drive-In</FONT></A><BR> <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://www.goetzskyvu.com/SKY-VU/SV_SHOWS_%26_TIMES_.html"><font color=blue>Monroe Drive-In</FONT></A><BR> <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV> <A 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align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV> <TABLE CELLPADDING="0" CELLSPACING="0" width=100% border=0><TR><TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top" BGcolor="#eeeeee" class="fonta"> <center><A NAME=Traffic></a><BR><A HREF="#top"><img src="http://www.dot.wisconsin.gov/travel/madison/cameras/cam229.jpg" alt="From http://www.511wi.gov/Web/Cameras.aspx?page=2" width="475" height="354" border="0"></a><BR> <A NAME=Traffic></a><A HREF="#top"><img src="http://www.dot.wisconsin.gov/travel/madison/cameras/cam228.jpg" alt="From http://www.511wi.gov/Web/Cameras.aspx?page=2" width="475" height="354" border="0"></a> </center><BR> <center><BIG><B><I><A HREF="#misc"><font color=blue>Misc. notes</font></a></i></b></big></center><BR> Fred Rogers "It happens so often. I walk down the street and someone 20 or 30 or 40 years old will come up to me and say, 'You are Mr Rogers, aren't you?' And then they tell me about growing up with the neighborhood, and how they're passing on to the children they know what they found to be impiortant in our television work..." "... And invariably we end our little time together with a hug. I'm just so proud of all of you who have grown up with us, and I know how tough it is some days to look with hope and confidence on the months and years ahead. But I would like to tell you what I often told you when you were much younger: I like you just the way you are." <A NAME=hold></a> SHORT NAME John W. Weeks FULL NAME RELIGION ORIENTATION PARTY BORN DIED DISPOSITION CAUSE OF DEATH NATIONALITY EXEC SUMMARY OCCUPATION =BIOGRAPHY Made his fortune as co-founder of the brokerage firm Hornblower and Weeks. Served five terms in Congress and one term in the Senate, where he opposed prohibition and women's suffrage, and pressed for passage of the Federal Reserve Act of 1913. He was a serious candidate for the Republican Presidential nomination in 1916, but was elbowed aside at the convention in favor of the party's eventual nominee, [[Charles Evans Hughes]], who lost to the incumbent, [[Woodrow Wilson]]. Weeks backed [[Warren G. Harding]] in the 1920 Presidential campaign, and was rewarded by being named Secretary of War under Harding and his successor, [[Calvin Coolidge]]. =NOTES (SITE SOURCES) =LISTS Title: The Life of John W. Weeks Author: Charles G. Washburn Publisher: Houghton Mifflin Location: Boston, MA Date: 1928 Pages: 349pp. %% =RELATIONS f m Mary Helen Fowler Weeks h/w =CV =CURRICULUM VITAE hs u u u u t t pr pr pr pr a MILITARY OFFICIAL WEBSITE BRITANNICA NONE WIKIPEDIA http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_W._Weeks IMDB RISK <hr noshade> whole chicken: Heat oven to 400. Rinse the chicken, remove giblets, and put it in a glass or ceramic baking pan. Drizzle it with olive oil and sprinkle it with salt. If you want to eat the giblets, put them in the corners of the pan. When the oven gets heated, lower the temperature to 350 and put the chicken in. Wait an hour or so and check on it. It's done when the drumsticks wiggle easily or when a knife stuck in the thigh doesn't bleed pink. The best part of a baked chicken is the tail. It's the bacon of chicken. <BR> SHORT NAME Bill Palmer FULL NAME William Francis Palmer RELIGION ORIENTATION PARTY BORN DIED DISPOSITION CAUSE OF DEATH NATIONALITY EXEC SUMMARY OCCUPATION =OBITUARY =BIOGRAPHY WHO'S WHO AT THE LIBRARY William Palmer was a district manager for [[@list::company:burger-king]] before he borrowed $20,000 to open the first TJ Applebee's Edibles and Elixirs Restaurant in Atlanta on 19 November 1980, with his wife, T. J. Palmer. Between the Palmers and their business partners, there was no-one involved named Applebee; Palmer chose the name out of a phone book. After opening a second location they sold the concept to a subsidiary of [[@list::company:wr-grace-and-co]] in May 1983. Palmer stayed with the company for two years after Grace bought him out, then purchased a group of Applebee's franchises, which he has operated since. Grace sold the company to a group of franchise-holders in 1988, and in 2007 Applebee's, now called Applebee's Neighborhood Grill and Bar, was purchased by DineEquity, the corporate parent of [[@list::company:ihop]]. =FOOTNOTES =LISTS exec:applebees:Co-Founder & President (1980-85) org:national-restaurant-association Title: TITLE Author: AUTHOR Publisher: PUBLISHER Location: CITY Date: YEAR Pages: XXXpp. %% author:TITLE:YEAR =RELATIONS f m h/w T.J. Palmer (m. 1973, div. 1998) =CV =CURRICULUM VITAE hs u u u u t t pr pr pr pr a MILITARY OFFICIAL WEBSITE a.k.a. BRITANNICA WIKIPEDIA IMDB RISK <A NAME=MPI></A> <BR>Interconnected network of scientific facilities operated by the Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science. Prior to 1948, Kaiser Wilhelm Institutes operated by MPS's predecessor group, the Kaiser Wilhelm Society for the Advancement of Science.<p> <ul> <li> Bibliotheca Hertziana / Max Planck Institute for Art History, Rome, Italy <li> Friedrich Miescher Laboratory of the Max Planck Society, Tübingen, Germany <li> Fritz Haber Institute of the Max Planck Society, Berlin, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Astronomy, Heidelberg, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Garching, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Biology of Ageing, Köln, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Social Anthropology,Halle/Saale, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry, Martinsried, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry, Jena, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Bioinorganic Chemistry, Mülheim, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics, Tübingen, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry / Karl Friedrich Bonhoeffer Institute, Göttingen, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute of Biophysics, Frankfurt, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Brain Research, Frankfurt, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Chemical Physics of Solids, Dresden, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, Mainz, Germany (Otto Hahn Institute) <li> Max Planck Institute of Coal Research, Mülheim, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute of Collective Goods, Bonn, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Potsdam, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Comparative and International Private Law, Hamburg, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Comparative Public Law and International Law, Heidelberg, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research, Rostock, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology, Tübingen, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Dynamics and Self-Organization, Göttingen, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Dynamics of Complex Technical Systems, Magdeburg, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute of Economics, Jena, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for European Legal History, Frankfurt, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, Plön, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute of Experimental Endocrinology, Hannover, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Garching, Germany <li> Max Planck Florida Institute, Jupiter, Florida <li> Max Planck Institute for Foreign and International Criminal Law, Freiburg, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Foreign and International Social Law, Munich, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics / Albert Einstein Institute, Golm and Hannover, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research / W. G. Kerckhoff Institute, Bad Nauheim, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for the History of Science, Berlin, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute of Immunobiology, Freiburg, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Berlin, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Informatics, Saarbrücken, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Intellectual Property, Munich, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Iron Research, Düsseldorf, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute Kunsthistorisches Art History Institute, Florence, Italy <li> Max Planck Institute for Marine Microbiology, Bremen, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Mathematics, Bonn, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Mathematics in the Sciences, Leipzig, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Heidelberg, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Metals Research, Stuttgart, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, Hamburg, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute of Microstructure Physics, Halle/Saale, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Molecular Biomedicine, Münster, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Dresden, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Berlin, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute of Molecular Physiology, Dortmund, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Potsdam, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute of Neurobiology, Martinsried, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Neurological Research, Köln, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Nuclear Physics, Heidelberg, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Ornithology, Seewiesen, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Physics / Werner Heisenberg Institute, Munich, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for the Physics of Complex Systems, Dresden, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Köln, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Plasma Physics, Garching, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research, Mainz, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry / German Research Institute for Psychiatry, Munich, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Nijmegen, Netherlands <li> Max Planck Institute of Quantum Optics, Garching, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Radio Astronomy, Bonn, Germany <li> Max Planck Research Unit for Enzymology of Protein Folding, Halle/Saale, Germany <li> Max Planck Research Unit for Structural Molecular Biology at DESY, Hamburg, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for the Science of Light, Erlangen, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Software Systems, Kaiserslautern, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research, Katlenburg-Lindau, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Solid State Research, Stuttgart, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for the Study of Religious and Ethnic Diversity, Göttingen, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for the Study of Societies, Köln, Germany <li> Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg, Germany </ul> <A NAME=steph></a> bamboo cutting boards Ian's gift certificate sunglasses, clip, chains frying pans insurance? http://www2.timesdispatch.com/rtd/business/local/article/B-JEAN27_20100526-215802/347120/ http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2010/05/26/BU2C1DKF3D.DTL The legislation no longer includes federal subsidies for COBRA health insurance, which are set to expire May 31. House leaders say they will take up a bill to extend those benefits next month. http://www.mlive.com/michigan-job-search/index.ssf/2010/05/house_begins_debate_on_bill_that_include.html old time memories <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://www.mistersquirrel.net/news/index3.htm">&diams;</A> <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://platypusmaximus.blogspot.com/"><b>&diams;</b></A> try http://www.sodahead.com/blogs/user/474425/starrgazerr/ again someday <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://candleboy.com/">&diams;</A> again someday http://www.youtube.com/user/biasvanci </TD></TR></TABLE> </TD><td vAlign="top" align="center" width="10" bgcolor="ffffff" class="fonty">&nbsp;</TD></TR></TABLE> <center> <A HREF="#audiovideo"><font color=blue>A/V</font></A> &nbsp; <A HREF="#docs"><font color=blue>Docs</font></A> &nbsp; <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://zoo.atomics.org/mm/children.cgi?project=soylent&id=31875&action=new"><font color=blue>Dr</font></A><A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://www.drsputnik.com"><font color=blue><b>Sp</b></font></A> &nbsp; <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://wm59.inbox.com/index.aspx?_cu=1KCRW2Puok8DXvkeF0t2TdYMx2PsvIJ2Hp6pqBMCpspAHpsko77Q@"><font color=blue>I</font></a><A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://mailbox19.lycos.com/zimbra/mail#1"><font color=blue>L</font></a><A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://registration.myway.com/btprimary_login.jsp?regarea=email&return_url=http://my.myway.com/email_redir.jsp"><font color=blue>M</font></a><A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://uk.mc303.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?ymv=0"><font color=blue>Y</font></a> &nbsp; <A target="_blank" HREF="http://www.madisonpubliclibrary.org/"><font color=blue>Library</font></A> (<A target="_blank" HREF="http://libonline.scls.lib.wi.us/public/login.aspx"><font color=blue>res</font></A>; <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="https://addons.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/addon/1122/"><font color=blue>#</font></A>) &nbsp; <A HREF="#local"><font color=blue>Local</font></A> &nbsp; <A TARGET="_blank" 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</center> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="5" style="border-collapse: collapse" width="30%" align="right"><tr><td class="fonty" vAlign="top" align="center" width="100%"> <A HREF="#EastWash"><img src="http://www.dot.wisconsin.gov/travel/madison/cameras/cam216.jpg" alt="From http://www.511wi.gov/Web/Cameras.aspx?page=2" width="475" height="354" border="0"></a> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="5" style="border-collapse: collapse" width="100%" align="right"><tr><td class="fonty" vAlign="top" align="center" width="100%"> Science: <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://www.google.com/cse?cx=014601306488162765871%3Aj7z5zvvzzjs&ie=UTF-8&q=biography+&sa=Search&siteurl=www.google.com%2Fcse%2Fhome%3Fcx%3D014601306488162765871%3Aj7z5zvvzzjs"><font color=blue>#</font></A> <A TARGET="_blank" 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color=blue>NNDB input tree</font></a> &nbsp; <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://zoo.atomics.org/nn/list-registry/ancestry/"><font color=blue>ancestry</font></A> &nbsp; <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://zoo.atomics.org/nn/registry/"><font color=blue>backdoor</font></A> &nbsp; <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://www.google.com/search?q=site%3Afundinguniverse.com+&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-8&aq=t&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official&client=firefox-a"><font color=blue>company history</font></A> &nbsp; <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_stars_on_the_Hollywood_Walk_of_Fame"><font color=blue>HWoF</font></A> &nbsp; <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://zoo.atomics.org/nn/list-registry/movie-keywords/"><font color=blue>movie keywords</font></A> &nbsp; <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://zoo.atomics.org/nn/list-registry/vitals/risk-factors/"><font color=blue>risk factors</font></A> &nbsp; <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://zoo.atomics.org/nn/list-registry/sports-teams/"><font color=blue>sports&nbsp;teams</font></A> &nbsp; <A TARGET="_blank" HREF="http://www.worldcat.org/search?q=au%3AAUTHOR&fq=-mt%3Ajuv+%3E+dt%3Abks&qt=advanced&dblist=638"><font color=blue>WorldCat</font></A> </td></tr></table></td></tr></table> <A NAME=nextbios></A><A NAME=half-bios &frac12;></A> https://www.haband.com/index.cfm/fuseaction/orderHistory.detail/orderID/168e2eb9-51ea-4e9d-94b6-1add7e4a9b8a/page/1/ <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>73&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; American psychologist Gordon W. Allport studied personality and prejudice, advanced the science of personality tests, advocated non-experimental methods of data collection and analysis, and predicted the fall of apartheid in South Africa. He often told the story of his frustrating meeting with Sigmund Freud in Vienna, where the two psychologists sat in silence, each waiting for the other to speak, until Allport attempted to make small talk  and Freud responded by attempting to plumb the psychological depths of Allport's comments. Allport used this anecdote to remind psychologists not to search for psychological subtext in every insignificant remark. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>72&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; On AMC's <i>Breaking Bad</i>, Aaron Paul plays drug dealer and meth-head Jesse Pinkman. The character was originally conceived as dying at the end of the first season, but as the show's producers grew more impressed by Paul's performance and his chemistry with [[Bryan Cranston]], the plotline was reconceived with Pinkman surviving. Still, even after his character's life was spared, Paul says Cranston and others on the set would frequently approach him with comments like, "I'm not going to say anything but it was such a pleasure working with you."<p> His other work includes a recurring role on HBO's <i>Big Love</i>, and a small part as [[Tom Cruise]]'s brother-in-law in <i>Mission: Impossible III</i>. He also appeared in the music video for [[@band::Korn]]'s "Thoughtless", and in TV commercials for Juicy Fruit gum, Kellogg's Corn Pops, Pepsi, and Pizza Hut. Paul has said that prior to his success on <i>Breaking Bad</i>, he frequently snuck into the Los Angeles theater where [[[[@tv::jimmy-kimmel-live]] is taped, and loitered in the green room playing pool and drinking from the show's backstage open bar. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>71&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; Phil Bryant is a former sheriff's deputy and conservative "Tea Party" Republican elected Governor of Mississippi in 2011, succeeding [[Haley Barbour]]. Campaigned for Governor calling for lower taxes, voter-ID requirements, a ban on gay marriage, tougher laws against drug use, implementation of charter schools, and an "absolute right" to gun ownership. Strongly opposed 2010 health care reform (a/k/a "[[Barack Obama|Obama]]care"), illegal immigration, and abortion rights, and endorsed a failed 2011 anti-abortion ballot initiative that would have defined a fertilized egg as a human being with full civil rights. As Lieutenant Governor under Barbour, Bryant oversaw legislative redistricting that was deemed gerrymandering and rejected by a federal court. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>70&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; In graduate school, astrophysicist Adam G. Riess developed a new technique to measure the distance to far-away galaxies. Riess then led the study for the High-Z Supernova Search Team, which found startling evidence that even 14 billion years after the big bang, the expansion of the universe is still accelerating.<p> This finding was so unexpected that Riess and his co-worker [[Brian P. Schmidt]] spent several days checking and re-checking their calculations, searching for a mistake, before nervously submitting their findings for peer review in 1998. Eventually, a vacuum energy called the cosmological constant &mdash; originally proposed in 1917 by [[Albert Einstein]], who later rejected the notion &mdash; has became the accepted explanation for this acceleration that continues pushing the universe apart.<p> Riess and Schmidt shared the 2011 Nobel Prize for Physics, along with [[Saul Perlmutter]], who made essentially the same discovery while working independently. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>69&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; Canadian biologist Ralph M. Steinman discovered a previously unknown cell type, the dendritic cell, in 1973. Dendritic cells are antigen-presenting cells (APCs) which play a critical role in the adaptive immune response, activating T-cells and orchestrating the immune system's defensive response to infected or malignant cells. With [[Bruce A. Beutler]] and [[Jules A. Hoffmann]], Steinman was awarded the Nobel Prize for Medicine in 2011. After several years of experimental treatment derived from his own research, Steinman died of pancreatic cancer just days before the award was announced. Nobel Prize rules prohibit posthumous awards but Steinman's honor was allowed to stand, because the Committee had been unaware of his death as they deliberated. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>68&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; In 1989, while studying the Northern Blowfly (<i>Protophormia terraenovae</i>), French biologist Jules A. Hoffmann discovered two previously-unknown immune peptides (compounds consisting of two or more amino acids linked in a chain), which triggered defensive reactions against certain bacteria. Prior to this discovery, these bacteria-killing peptides were thought to exist only in mammals. In 1996, Hoffmann and his team at the French National Center for Scientific Research (CNRS) discovered that receptor proteins can recognize certain bacteria and microorganisms, and through mutations in molecules in the Toll signaling pathway, activate what is called innate immunity, the immune system's first defensive response. With [[Bruce A. Beutler]] and [[Ralph M. Steinman]], Hoffmann won the Nobel Prize for Medicine in 2011. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>67&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; Econometrician and macroeconomist Christopher A. Sims has studied the cause-and-effect relationship between governmental economic policy and the general economy. He has made respected contributions to the statistical theory of time series and empirical macroeconomics, and he is critical of the Phillips Curve, which posits an inverse relationship between the unemployment and inflation rates. He was voted "Most Likely to Succeed," and "Most Brilliant" in his 1959 high school class, and fifty-two years later Sims was awarded the 2011 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. At the time he won the honor, shared with his friend, New York University economist [[Thomas J. Sargent]], Sims and Sargent were jointly teaching a graduate course in macroeconomics at Princeton. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>66&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; American macroeconomist Thomas J. Sargent won the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 2011, for a body of work which attempts to analyze and extract meaningful data from historical economic trends. Sometimes described as the father of modern structural macroeconometrics, Sargent helped to develop rational expectations theory, which asserts that some economic outcomes are at least partially determined by people's rational expectations. Another Nobel economics laureate, [[Robert M. Solow]], said of Sargent and co-Nobel recipient Christopher Sims, "They are very, very sophisticated designers of ways to get information out of the time series of economic data." <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>65&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; Much to the aggravation of Yemeni government officials, journalist and human rights activist Tawakkul Karman has worked to establish and increase journalistic freedom in her nation. The founder and chair of Woman Journalists without Chains, she has faced death threats and been arrested and jailed repeatedly for leading sit-ins and rallies opposing restrictions on free speech, laws against open protest, and freedom for jailed dissidents. "I couldn't see any sort of human rights or corruption report that could shake this regime, she said in February of 2011, as she established an open-ended tent-based protest against the regime of President Ali Abdullah Saleh. She was still leading the protest from a tent in "Change Square" at Sana'a University when she won the 2011 Nobel Peace Prize, sharing the honor with Leymah Gbowee and Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf. 32 years of age when she was awarded the Nobel, Karman is the youngest-ever recipient of the Peace Prize. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>64&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; Leymah Gbowee is a social worker and activist who, in 2003, began urging the women at her Lutheran church to pray for peace in the brutal and ongoing revolution against Liberian dictator [[26401|Charles Taylor]]. Under Gbowee's leadership, the prayer effort grew into a sex strike, and a nationwide all-woman peace initiative that soon spread to other Christian churches, reaching about 40% of Nigeria's people, and to Muslim mosques, attended by about half of the nation's citizens.<p> From churches and mosques to the streets, the movement spearheaded by Gbowee developed into the Liberian Mass Action for Peace, and held mass rallies at a fish market in Monrovia demanding an end to the warring factions' use of rape as a weapon. As the rallies grew, public pressure for peace talks also grew, leading to peace talks between Taylor and the rebels, and when the peace talks broke down, Gbowee and hundreds of her followers protested at the site of the talks, shaming participants into returning to the negotiation table. An agreement was reached in 2003, the Accra Peace Accord, which ended the 14-year-long Second Liberian Civil War that left 250,000 dead, and effectively led to Taylor's exile from the nation.<p> Since the war's conclusion Gbowee has worked on demilitarization efforts, and supported the 2006 election of Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf as President of Liberia. In 2006 she earned a degree in Conflict Transformation from Eastern Mennonite University in Harrisonburg, VA, and in 2011, with Tawakkol Karman, Gbowee and Johnson-Sirleaf were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>63&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; Fascinated with nature even as a child, Bruce A. Beutler decided at the age of seven that he would be a biologist. He graduated from the University of California at San Diego at age 18, and earned his MD at the University of Chicago. In a series of discoveries beginning in the mid-1980s, Beutler isolated tumor necrosis factor (TNF) in mice, and discovered its inflammatory properties; developed recombinant inhibitors for TNF, which are now used widely as a treatment for inflammatory diseases; and discovered the receptor for lipopolysaccharide (LPS), which helps explain how inflammatory diseases begin and how mammals sense infection. For his work with lipopolysaccharide receptors, Beutler won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for 2011, sharing the honor with Jules Hoffmann and Ralph Steinman. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>62&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; Israeli chemist Dan Shechtman discovered quasicrystals in 1982, when he noticed the unusual characteristics of a new crystal of aluminum and manganese he had made in his laboratory. Until Shechtman's discovery, all known crystalline solids had displayed a regular repeating pattern, but quasicrystals follow a set pattern without repeating themselves. This was beyond groundbreaking  it was considered simply impossible, and Shechtman was asked to leave the research group he had been working with, for "bringing disgrace" on the team. After publishing his results, Shechtman was mocked by the world's leading chemists, including [[Linus Pauling]], who said publicly, "Shechtman is talking nonsense. There is no such thing as quasicrystals, only quasi-scientists." By 1987, however, scientists in France and Japan had duplicated and built on his results, and in 2011 Shechtman was awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>61&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; Henrietta Lacks was an impoverished, Black, barely educated tobacco farmer who made enormous albeit unknowing contributions to science. She was born Loretta Pleasant in 1920, but everyone who knew her called her Henrietta or Henny, and she married her first cousin, David Lacks, in 1941. Ten years later she was the mother of five, but seriously ill, and she sought medical treatment at the world-famous Johns Hopkins Hospital, because it was the only hospital within twenty miles of her home that would accept black patients. At Hopkins her cervical cancer was misdiagnosed, and Dr George Gey (1899-1970) obtained a tissue sample from her growing and soon-to-be fatal tumor for medical research, without her knowledge or consent. Not informing the patient was an ordinary practice at the time, and Gey routinely collected samples from the hospital's cancer patients for his research.<p> Lacks died within months of her first visit to the hospital, at just 31 years of age, but the cells cultured from her cancer have had a profoundly different fate. Unlike any other human cells that had previously been cultured, Lacks' cells were found to be astonishingly resilient, effectively immortal, infinitely dividing and replenishing themselves. For reasons still not understood, Lacks' cells survive and redivide without any apparent limit so long as a growth medium is provided, unlike ordinary human cells, which soon struggle and die under test-tube conditions. As the first immortal cell line, this phenomenon meant that cell lines derived from Henrietta Lacks were ideal for medical research. For the first time, scientific studies could be conducted on living human cells, which could even be kept in a state of suspended animation, frozen and stored at -80 °C, and when thawed the cells would simply start growing again.<p> On 4 October 1951, the same day that Henrietta Lacks died, Dr Gey appeared on television holding a vial of cells from her body, and explaining this scientific breakthrough to the camera without mentioning Lacks by name. New methods were promptly developed to mass-produce these cells, which Gey called HeLa, a shortened and anonymized version of Henrietta Lacks' name. A factory was set up at the Tuskegee Institute solely to manufacture HeLa cells, which were distributed worldwide, and came to be seen as "the gold standard" in scientific research.<p> HeLa cells were crucial in the development of [[Jonas Salk]]'s polio vaccine, and have been used extensively in research into cancer, AIDS, and other diseases from herpes to influenza to [[James Parkinson|Parkinson]]'s disease. HeLa samples have been used in testing of glues, cosmetics and other commercial products; were the first human cells to be gene mapped; were sent into space to study the effects of zero gravity on a cellular level; were used to study the effects of nuclear explosions on living human cells; were used to develop chemotherapy drugs  the list of scientific uses for HeLa cells is almost literally endless. By the mid 2000s, about 20 tons of HeLa cells had been manufactured and used in research, and these cells, all derived from one woman who died in 1951, are still alive, and are still the human cell line most commonly used in research.<p> For many years after her death, however, Henrietta Lacks' widow, children, and extended family knew nothing of all this, receiving neither payment nor acknowledgment for her unknowing contributions to science. Scientists and reporters occasionally inquired about the source of HeLa, but Henrietta Lacks' name was usually lacking from the answers provided by Dr Gey, the physician at Johns Hopkins and whose scientific reputation was built on having cultured and discovered the hardy nature of Lacks' cells. In published accounts, HeLa cells were almost always attributed to the fictitious "Helen Lane," or less frequently "Helen Larson" or "Henrietta Lakes." Credit for understanding Lacks' contributions to science is due largely to Rebecca Skloot's 2010 book, <i>The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks</i>, which detailed the story of Lacks' short life and unending scientific afterlife. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>60&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; Famous Persian physician, philosopher, and alchemist Abu Bakr Muhammad Ibn Zakareya Al Razi, also known as Rhazes, authored <i>Al-Hawi</i>, the most comprehensive compendium of medical knowledge in his era. He studied and cited the medical traditions of Arabia, Greece, India, and Persia, while adding substantial information from his own research, and medical advice involving dietary recommendations. In surgery, he was among the first doctors known to use opium as an anaesthetic and animal guts as sutures, and in his medical practice he pioneered the use of gypsum plaster to form casts to encase broken limbs. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>59&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; Alison Arngrim played the memorable child villainess Nellie Oleson on TV's <i>Little House on the Prairie</i>, and as an adult works as a stand-up comedian and wrote a well-received autobiography, <i>Confessions of a Prairie Bitch</i>. In the mid-2000s she successfully worked to close a loophole in California law that bizarrely mandated milder sentences for child rapists, if their victims are their own children or siblings.<p> Her father, Thor Arngrim, was briefly [[Liberace]]'s personal manager, and her mother, Norma MacMillan, was a successful voice actress who spoke for <i>Casper the Friendly Ghost</i> for its 1960s TV run, Davey on the Lutheran Church's treacly cartoon <i>Davey and Goliath</i>, and Sweet Polly Purebred on <i>Underdog</i>. Her brother, Stefan Arngrim, was a child actor best known for [[Irwin Allen]]'s <i>Land of the Giants</i>, who repeatedly abused her during her childhood, according to her autobiography. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>58&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; Friederike "Fifi" Gessner was born wealthy, the daughter of a successful Austrian architect, and she was raised on the family's sprawling estate. A turning point in her life came as a teenager, when she accompanied her father's resident gamekeeper onto the estate's hunting grounds, and shot and killed a deer. She found the experience deeply troubling, and vowed to never again kill for sport. As a young woman her interests wandered  she studied art, dressmaking, and metal crafts, trained as a classical pianist but eschewed performing, and planned to attend medical school but never took the entrance exams. Instead she married Victor von Klarwill , an Austrian businessman who, being Jewish, wisely worried about the rise of the Nazis. In 1937 he sent his wife to Africa to find a suitable place for them to stay until the Nazi era's end.<p> On her journey to Africa, however, Fifi met and fell in love with another man, a Swedish botanist named Peter Bally, who worked at the Nairobi Museum in Kenya. Promptly divorcing von Klarwill, she married Bally in 1938, and he was the first person to call her "Joy." She traveled with Bally on several African expeditions as he collected African plant life, and she illustrated his botanical papers and gained some renown as a scientific illustrator. Befriended by archaeologists [[Louis Leakey|Louis]] and [[Mary Leakey]], she accompanied them on excavations in Kenya and Tanzania, and met George Adamson, a Kenyan game warden who became her third husband after she divorced Bally in 1944.<p> In 1956, while working in the wilds of Africa, her husband was charged by a lion, and fatally shot the animal. He then heard meowing from the nearby brush  the lion was female, and had attacked because, unbeknownst to Adamson, he had been approaching her three cubs. Two of the orphaned animals were soon deemed healthy enough to be given to zoos, but George and Joy Adamson raised the smallest and weakest cub, which they named Elsa. She wrote a book, <i>Born Free</i>, about raising and eventually releasing the lion, and the book became a best-seller, inspiring a hit movie and short-lived television series. The book and movie helped alter worldwide attitudes toward the value of preserving natural wildlife and habitat, and Joy Adamson was also among the first to call for a boycott of clothing made from animal fur.<p> When Elsa the lion eventually became sick and died, leaving three cubs who were too young to be released into the wild, the Adamsons adopted those animals as well, leading to additional books. Adamson also adopted a young cheetah who had previously been a house pet, which she named Pippa, training it to survive in the wild and writing two books about the animal. George and Joy Adamson separated in 1971, but remained close enough to celebrate Christmas together every December. She was murdered in 1980, and a former employee, Paul Wakwaro Ekai, was convicted in her killing, though he has always maintained that Kenyan police used torture to extract a false confession from him. Joy Adamson's ashes were divided and buried in two sites at Meru National Park in Kenya, adjacent to the graves of Elsa the lioness and Pippa the cheetah. Her husband continued their work until he was murdered by poachers in 1989. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>58&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; Psychologist Kenneth B. Clark is best known for his studies on race relations, most of which were conducted with his wife, psychologist Mamie Phipps Clark. While working at City College of New York they developed their famous "doll tests," in which children were given black and white dolls to play with, and asked to indicate which dolls they would prefer to play with. The tests were administered to children in several communities of differing economic and racial complexion, and the results showed that regardless of community, black children identified with the black dolls, but that children of either race tended to view the white dolls favorably and the black dolls unfavorably. Clark's results were published in a 1950 paper, "Effects of Prejudice and Discrimination on Personality Development," in which he concluded that institutional discrimination, including racial segregation in public schools, was harmful to the personality and psychological development of black children.<p> His paper on the "doll tests" was cited by the US Supreme Court in its landmark 1954 ruling, <i>Brown v. Board of Education</i>, which formally ended racial segregation in American public schools. Throughout his career, Clark worked for reorganization of public schools to remove race-related barriers to education. His 1963 collection of interviews with [[Martin Luther King]], [[Malcolm X]], and [[James Baldwin]] helped establish these Black leaders on the national stage, and his 1965 book <i>Dark Ghetto</i> spotlighted the problems of inner city slums.<p> In 1946, Clark and his wife established the Northside Center for Child Development, offering psychological services to poor and black children of Harlem. He was the first Black professor to gain tenure at the City College of New York (1960), the first African-American elected by the New York legislature to serve on the State Board of Regents, which oversees public education in the state (1968), and the first Black elected President of the American Psychological Association (1971). <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>57&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; Guy Stewart Callendar was a defense engineer specializing in steam and power generation, but he is remembered for his extensive albeit amateur work in climatology. In 1938 he published his first paper on the topic, entitled "The Artificial Production of Carbon Dioxide and Its Influence on Temperature," in which he noted a pattern of rising global temperatures over the first four decades of the 20th century. In this and several subsequent papers, he built on the work of [[Svante Arrhenius]], explaining how man-made carbon dioxide emissions trap radiation, and linking rising planetary temperatures with the increased combustion of fossil fuels brought about by continued industrialization.<p> Callendar was the first scientist to compile a reliable data set of world-wide surface temperatures through the historical record, and in the scientific literature of his time the warming effect of atmospheric CO2 was described as "the Callendar Effect." For a few years before his death in 1964, the temperature increases halted and the world underwent a brief cooling period, causingCallendar to wonder if his life's work had been for folly. As the evidence of climate change has accumulated since his death, however, his research seems impressively prescient, especially considering the primitive state of climate monitoring data available in his time. He is now generally credited with helping to establish the foundation for the anthropogenic theory of climate change. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>56&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; Sociologist Ernest Burgess studied the characteristics of urban populations, as compared to rural ones, and the patterns of ethnic segregation in cities. With [[Robert E. Park]], he theorized that a "natural community" emerges within any large city, and Park and Burgess co-authored <i>Introduction to the Science of Sociology</i>, a college-level textbook which was widely used for several decades. After his retirement in 1951, Burgess conducted research on the sociology of aging.<p> He also conducted studies on marriage, compiling statistics from interviews with hundreds of married couples, and concluded in 1945 that "institutional marriage" (which he defined as "a building block of society" established and regulated by social norms) was evolving into "companionate marriage" (more defined by affection between the parties and their choice of each other as lifelong companions) in American society. Based on his research, he proposed and lectured on a formula for choosing a spouse, though Burgess himself never married. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>55&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; Horticulturist Rudolph Boysen is remembered for his namesake fruit, the boysenberry, which he created in 1923 by grafting raspberries, blackberries, and loganberries. He was unable to interest farmers or merchants in cultivating or selling the sweet-sour berry until 1932, when [[WalterKnott ]] purchased several vines of the fruit and began growing and eventually marketing boysenberries and boysenberry pie at his burgeoningKnott's Berry Farm roadside attraction. In addition to the fruit, Boysen is the namesake of a park in Anaheim, where he was Parks Superintendent for almost three decades, until his death in 1950. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>54&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; Hong Kong movie mogul and philanthropist Sir Run Run Shaw produced more than 300 films, and helped popularize kung fu action movies and Asian cinema in the West. His first job was delivering movie reels by bicycle to cinemas in villages across the city-state of Singapore, and he started making silent films with his brothers in about 1924. He co-founded the Shaw Organisation, a Singapore-based film distribution and cinema chain, in 1924; Shaw Brothers Studio, a filmmaking concern, in 1930, and Television Broadcasts Limited, a/k/a TVB, a Hong Kong broadcasting conglomerate, in 1967. At the peak of his success in the 1980s, Shaw's companies owned hundreds of theaters in Asia and in major metropolitan Chinatowns across America and Europe.<p> Most of his movies were filmed without a soundtrack, for easier dubbing into assorted Chinese languages, including Cantonese, Hunanese, Mandarin, and others, and English, French, Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish. In addition to the language variables, Shaw's movies were generally filmed with varying scenes and costumes for their varied markets &mdash; with steamy, sexy scenes and clothes for the US, European, and Japanese markets, and "colder," fully-clothed versions of the same movies for audiences in Malaysia, Singapore, and Taiwan.<p> The studio's martial arts movies include such classics as <i>Come Drink With Me</i> (1965), <i>The One Armed Swordsman</i> (1967), <i>Five Fingers of Death</i> (1973), <i>The 36th Chamber of Shaolin</i> (1978), and <i>Five Element Ninja</i> (1985). Beyond chop socky, Shaw also produced musicals such as <i>Hong Kong Nocturne</i> (1966), the folk tale <i>Monkey Goes West</i> (1966), and the occasional non-Asian film, including the science fiction classic <i>Blade Runner</i> (1982) with [[Harrison Ford]] and the lesser effort <i>Meteor</i> (1979) with [[Sean Connery]] and [[Henry Fonda]]. After his wife grew ill in the mid-1980s, dying in 1987, Shaw largely withdrew from the motion picture business, and since then he has concentrated his efforts on the television business.<p> Shaw is a billionaire, owning amusement parks, office buildings, and shopping centers, and he is known for his philanthropy. He has endowed the Shaw Prizes, which offer $1M honorariums annually for achievement in astronomy, medicine, and mathematics, and he is the namesake of Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital in Hangzhou, China, as well as wings or buildings at the City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Baptist University, and [[Teresa of Avila|St. Teresa]]'s Hospital in Hong Kong, Knighted by [[Queen Elizabeth II]] in 1977 and now more than 100 years of age, Sir Run Run Shaw continues to serve as Chairman of TVB. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>53&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; Stanley N. Cohen is a physician and researcher, who has studied the biology of bacterial plasmids (circular deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecules that replicate independently of the bacterial chromosome), and helped explain the mechanisms underlying the control of cell growth and gene expression in higher organisms. He is best known for his work with geneticist [[Herbert W. Boyer]], in which they became the first scientists to transfer a gene from one species to another, proving that the transplanted gene could function normally in its new home.<p> Cohen and Boyer worked only a few dozen miles from each other, Cohen at Stanford and Boyer at the University of California at San Francisco, but did not meet until both men attended a conference on plasmids in Honolulu in the spring of 1972. Discovering their similar concerns, they had a late-night conversation over hot pastrami and corned beef sandwiches at a Korean deli on Waikiki Beach, and began collaborating. In just four months, using Boyer's methodology, they were able to successfully introduce foreign DNA into a bacterial plasma, and using Cohen's methodology, they were able to subsequently insert this modified plasmid into bacteria. Because bacteria divide very rapidly, their work allowed the genetic "manufacturing" of engineered drugs and hormones, leading to the multi-billion dollar biotechnology industry.<p> Cohen is not related to [[Stanley Cohen]], who won the Nobel Prize for developing nerve growth factor (NGF) and epidermal growth factor (EGF). <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>52&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; Herbert Boyer, working with Stanford biochemist [[Stanley N. Cohen]], devised a way to cut and paste genes from two bacteria, and then introduce this spliced gene into a third bacteria, which, when the procedure is performed successfully, can then be replicated infinitely. The work of Boyer and Cohen, first published in 1973, launched the modern concept of genetic engineering and led to the new business of biotechnology. With venture capitalist Robert Swanson (1947-1999), Boyer founded Genentech in 1976, and the company has used recombinant DNA technology to economically manufacture the diabetes drug insulin, the anti-viral protein interferon, and the growth hormone-inhibiting hormone somatostatin, among other products. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>51&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; For almost forty years, Charles Booth and his brother ran a profitable business selling skins and leather. In 1884 he was appointed to help oversee the analysis of certain census data, presumably because of his experience in business and his demonstrated aptitude for mathematics, but he reported that the census forms were woefully incomplete and unsatisfactory. The following year, the Social Democratic Federation (SDF) released the results of its study of London-area indigence and distress, concluding that about 25% of the city's people lived in abject poverty. Booth thought that this number was unreliable and "grossly overstated," and he resolved to conduct a thorough inquiry of his own, to determine the true extent of the problem.<p> Despite having no sociological training, he conducted a series of large-scale, statistically sound studies, compiling dozens of books of data, with exhaustive notations of each responding family's economic level and the breadwinners' occupations, and detailed interviews with church and charity workers. He also created, beginning in 1889, an innovative series of color-coded maps that graphically illustrated his findings, using seven different colors to indicate the varying income levels in each of the city's many neighborhoods.<p> To his initial surprise, Booth's research repeatedly showed that instead of overstating the problem, the SDF's study had actually <i>under</i>reported the extent of impoverishment  about 30 percent of London's citizens were destitute at around the turn of the 20th century, and of these, less than one percent could reasonably be deemed responsible for their own economic situation. With so many of the urban poor living in poverty, Booth maintained that it was unrealistic to expect private charities to adequately address the problem, and instead he urged the state to provide aid for the poor and provide pensions for senior citizens.<p> Booth's political inclinations were varied  he switched his registration from the Liberal to the Conservative Party in the early 1900s  but he strongly supported the Old Age Pensions Act, enacted by Parliament in 1908. He died in 1916, but his color-coded maps helped spur the introduction of London's first public housing projects in the early 1920s, and his research remained influential in the establishment of Liberal government-backed "social safety net" services through the first half of the 20th century.<p> His wife was a niece of historian [[Thomas Babington Macaulay]]. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>50&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; Physician and botanist Jacob Bigelow was an early 19th century physician at Massachusetts General Hospital who, seeking to procure better medicines for his patients, became his era's leading expert on New England botany. His three-volume <i>American Medical Botany</i>, published 1817-20, was the most advanced such text of its time, detailing dozens of plants and their medicinal uses, and it was the first American book with printed color illustrations, most of which were drawn by Bigelow himself. He also popularized the word <i>technology</i> in its modern sense.<p> Through his research and teaching, he helped define the proper use and eschewed the overuse of medicines, and warned of the dangers of narcotics. He wrote that some therapies then commonly used by the medical profession, including bloodletting and purging, not only had no effect on the natural course of diseases but could actually be detrimental, and he argued for the end of such practices. Concerned about diseases potentially spread through the common practice of human burials under and near churches, in 1831 he founded the Mount Auburn Cemetery on a sprawling, scenic site four miles outside of Boston. Bigelow and his wife are buried at the cemetery he established. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>49&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; Best known for his almost literally priceless art collection, Albert C. Barnes was a physician and pharmacologist who worked at the turn of the 20th century for H.K. Mulford and Company, a medicinal concern in Philadelphia that was later merged into Merck. At the Mulford Company, Barnes and chemist Hermann Hille (1872-1962) developed a new silver/protein compound that acted as an an antiseptic, and the two men then promptly quit to establish their own firm, Barnes & Hille. Their antiseptic was marketed under the trade name Argyrol, widely used to prevent eye infections in infants, and the company was very successful. Barnes, however, soon became irritated at what he perceived as Hille's lackluster contribution to their partnership, and in 1908 he bought out Hille's interest in the business and changed its name to A.C. Barnes Company. After their dissolution the company became much more profitable, and by the early 1910s Barnes was a millionaire. He became a millionaire several times over when he sold the business in 1929, just months before the stock market crash.<p> Barnes was always interested in art, and he began seriously collecting in 1912, focusing his attention and wealth only on the works that interested him artistically. The artists who caught his eye included several relatively unknown impressionist artists, including [[Paul Cézanne]], [[Henri Matisse]], [[Amedeo Modigliani]], [[Pablo Picasso]], and [[Auguste Renoir]], among others. He was also one of the first Americans to seriously collect African, Asian, and Native American art.<p> In 1923, he agreed to a brief display of some of his recent acquisitions at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts in Philadelphia, including numerous Matisses and Picassos, alongside works by [[Giorgio de Chirico]], [[André Derain]], and [[Chaim Soutine]]. It was the first time that French Impressionist art had been displayed in the City of Brotherly Love, but the response was brutal &mdash; critics called the artwork "diseased," "debased," "degenerate," and "most unpleasant to contemplate." Infuriated, Barnes decided that the Philadelphia "art elite" was comprised of phonies and snobs, and he vowed that his collection would never again be publicly displayed in that city.<p> He opened a small art school in the town of Merion, about five miles outside of Philadelphia, and there his increasingly substantial collection was displayed &mdash; but only for students and a very few visitors, who needed to obtain Barnes' permission in advance before visiting. The Foundation was surrounded by a ten foot tall bulwark, described by neighbors as the "spite wall," and the school's proprietor was picky about who would be allowed inside the doors &mdash; ordinary people who expressed a sincere interest were usually welcomed, as were celebrities and artists, if Barnes judged their intent to be pure. Others, including the auto magnate [[Walter P. Chrysler]], architect [[Le Corbusier]], and the poet [[T. S. Eliot]], had their requests to visit flatly rebuffed. As a rule, any would-be visitor was turned away is he or she cited a connection with any aspect of what Barnes called "the art establishment."<p> Barnes could be kind and frequently was, but he was also described as cantankerous, capricious, and unwilling to compromise. He counted [[John Dewey]] among his closest friends, and maintained a long correspondence with art critic Leo Stein (1872-1947), the older brother of [[Gertrude Stein]]. In 1940, after [[Bertrand Russell]] was barred from teaching at City College of New York, Barnes hired Russell to lecture at the Foundation, but these two strong-willed men soon clashed, and in 1943 Russell was fired.<p> On 24 July 1951, Barnes ran a red light while driving, and he was killed instantly when his Cadillac was rammed by a truck. By then, his collection was said to be the world's finest assortment of post-Impressionist and early modern works, and Barnes was widely respected but perhaps just as widely despised in the art world, for his astounding collection and his stubborn scrutiny over who could and could not view his myriad masterpieces. And his idiosyncratic control continued, even after his death &mdash; his last will & testament gave control of the collection to Lincoln University, a small traditionally Black college, and included excruciatingly explicit instructions that specified how the collection must be maintained and displayed, with a stipulation that the artwork could never be relocated, sold, or loaned out to museums.<p> Per Barnes' directives, the Foundation was never quite a museum, but instead was operated as an art institute. Only a strictly limited number of visitors were allowed inside, all of whom needed to file detailed applications in order to receive their required visitors' reservations. For several decades after his death, Barnes' collection of art remained at the Foundation, where some visitors were charmed by the small building's seclusion, general coolness, and quirky layout, with paintings hung just inches from other paintings. Other visitors complained that the lighting and parking were inadequate and the rigors for gaining access too daunting.<p> As the reputation and value of works by Renoir and Barnes' other favorites skyrocketed, this little-seen collection came to be worth more than a billion dollars, though an accurate assessment is difficult to gauge, as the collection's most famous art is so highly regarded that works of such caliber are rarely offered at auction. The Barnes Foundation, however, was poorly managed, and forbidden to sell any portion of the collection, it teetered near bankruptcy through the 1990s and early 2000s. A 2004 court case allowed the breaking of Barnes' will, and in 2011 the Foundation's gallery in Merion was closed as construction continues on the new "Barnes on the Parkway" complex in downtown Philadelphia, which is scheduled to open in 2012. Reservations will not be required. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>48&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; Crazy Horse was the most famous and perhaps greatest of the Sioux commanders, and led his warriors to victory in four major confrontations with the US Army, including the famous Battle of Little Big Horn. He was born in the winter of 1841-42, and his father, also called Crazy Horse, was a revered holy man. According to legend, he was a solitary but curious child, but at about 12 years of age, he was in a Lakota (Sioux) encampment as a famous moment in frontier history unfolded, on 19 August 1854.<p> A cow had wandered off from a passing Mormon caravan, and been killed for meat and leather by a visitor to the Sioux encampment. US troops led by Lt John Grattan (1830-1854) arrived and demanded that the visitor be remanded into their custody, and the band's elder, Conquering Bear (c. 1800-1854), offered apologies and restitution, but refused to let the Whites take his visitor. At some point during a tense standoff, a jittery soldier drew his gun and shot a native, and suddenly gunshots and arrows filled the air. Conquering Bear was shot and killed, the only Sioux casualty in what became known as the Grattan massacre  Lt Grattan and 29 of his soldiers were killed.<p> Witnessing this, the boy was deeply troubled, and rode alone to the peak of a tall hill, where he laid on the ground, pondered it all, and  after three days of fasting  had a powerful vision. He saw a warrior riding his horse through furious battle and thunderstorm without injury, untouched by arrows and bullets, and knew that the warrior, who had a lightning bolt on his cheek, was invulnerable. For the remainder of his life, Crazy Horse painted a lightning bolt on his cheek before battle. He was not invulnerable, of course, but in his many battles Crazy Horse was never more than slightly wounded.<p> On 3 September 1855, while he was still a boy, he witnessed the US Army's retaliation for the Grattan massacre, the Battle of Ash Hollow, as Gen William Harney (1800-1889) led an attack that left more than a hundred Sioux dead. Crazy Horse was not injured, but he was left with a life-long hatred of the Whites. Over the next decade he grew into a respected warrior, for his leadership in several battles that effectively blocked US plans to open the Bozeman Trail to settlers and gold miners in Sioux territory.<p> On 21 December 1866, he led Sioux forces in the Fetterman massacre, killing Captain William J. Fetterman (1833-66) and his men after luring them into an intricately laid trap near an Army fort. Two years later, Chief Red Cloud (1822-1909) signed a treaty with the Americans, agreeing to relocate the tribe to a reservation on the west side of the Missouri River, but Crazy Horse and his followers refused to resettle. In 1873 and '74 warriors led by Crazy Horse repeatedly engaged troops commanded by General [[George Armstrong Custer]].<p> At about this time, he fell in love with Black Buffalo Woman, who eventually married another man, No Water. Crazy Horse and No Water feuded after her marriage, and at one point their rivalry came to a gunfight, leaving Crazy Horse wounded. He later married an Oglala woman, Black Shawl, but in 1876 his quiet domestic life was shattered, when a peaceful encampment of Sioux was attacked by Army troops under the command of General Joseph J. Reynolds (1822-1899), and the survivors from this battle sought refuge with Crazy Horse. He swore that he would avenge the dead, and attacked the bluecoats in the Battle of Rosebud Creek on 17 June 1876, a decisive victory for the Sioux.<p> A week later, on 25 June 1876, Custer's men attacked Crazy Horse's forces, which by then included several thousand native warriors. The Battle of Little Bighorn was fatal for Custer and some 250 of his men, but in response the US flooded the Plains with so many well-armed soldiers that the Sioux could not possibly win. As Union forces advanced over subsequent months, Crazy Horse's militia split in two, with some retreating to Canada while others, under Crazy Horse, fought on.<p> In December of 1876, cold, hungry, and almost out of ammunition, he sent a small party of men bearing white flags, seeking terms of surrender from General [[Nelson A. Miles]], but Miles' men opened fire on the surrender party. With his warriors and thousands of women and children, Crazy Horse then fled with Miles' men in pursuit, and on 8 January 1877, exhausted, outnumbered, and low on ammunition, the Army attacked while Crazy Horse and his men slept. Though the Sioux soon ran out of bullets and were reduced to fighting with bows and arrows, it was the Whites who eventually withdrew from the Battle of Wolf Mountain.<p> That spring, Army emissaries sent Crazy Horse promise of a reservation alongside the Powder River if he would surrender, and at the urging of the respected Chief Red Cloud, Crazy Horse and his men laid down their arms on 5 May 1877. The reservation they were promised was never granted, but Crazy Horse camped on Red Cloud's reservation for a few months. In the pre-dawn hours of 5 September 1877, he was roused from his sleep by order of General George Crook (1828-1890), and told he would be meeting with an Army officer. Instead Crazy Horse was taken to a guardhouse, and when he understood that he was about to be imprisoned he attempted to escape, and was fatally bayoneted in the back. His body was turned over to his parents, who had him buried but never revealed the whereabouts of his grave. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>47&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; Population geneticist and evolutionary theorist Sewall Wright coined the term "genetic drift" to describe the random events that change the frequency of various alleles in a population. He used mathematics to explain the action of genes in evolution, showing how natural selection, mutation, and other evolutionary pressures affect the frequencies of alleles (viable DNA coding that occupies a specific position on a chromosome) and genotypes (the genetic makeup of an organism).<p> Introduced in his 1931 paper "Evolution in Mendelian Populations," Wright's notion of "shifting balance" holds that a species' population is subject to different evolutionary pressures as groups become partially isolated, geographically, from others of their species, and that as one of these isolated groups arrive at a state that is better adapted to its environment through random gene-frequency drift, migrants from that group eventually travel and bring that evolutionary upgrade the species at large. This concept was disputed over several decades by [[Ronald Fisher]], who argued that the random gene-frequency drift was of minimal importance, and that instead large populations with large-scale selection is the most effective driver in evolution.<p> Wright spent the first decade of his career at the Department of Agriculture, where he perfected the inbreeding coefficient, a mathematical algorithm for determining the effect of inbreeding on heterozygosity (the presence of different alleles at one or more loci on homologous chromosomes). As Wright's own parents were first cousins, the application of his formula suggests that this reduced his own heterozygosity by 6.25%. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>46&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; American physicist Edward Bouchet was the first African American to earn an advanced academic doctorate (PhD) in any field at any college or university in the United States. He attended local schools in New Haven, Connecticut, and entered Yale in 1870, where his father  who had been born a slave  worked as a janitor. Bouchet earned his Bachelor's degree <i>summa cum laude</i> in 1874, ranking sixth in his class of 124, and became the first African-American to be nominated Phi Beta Kappa<tt>[fn.1]</tt>. With financial support from Philadelphia philanthropist Alfred Cope (1806-1875), Bouchet continued his studies, and earned his PhD in the nascent field of physics from Yale in 1874. His field of research was geometrical optics, and his dissertation was titled  On Measuring Refractive Indices. <p> A white man with Bouchet's academic credentials would have been welcomed virtually anywhere in academia, but in the 1870s no major or minor college or university in America would consider letting a "colored" man teach or conduct research, and none of the era's few all-Black colleges and universities offered advanced physics as part of the curriculum. Bouchet spent most of his career teaching chemistry, math, and introductory physics at the Institute for Colored Youth, a high school for black students in Philadelphia, and lost this job in 1902, when the school dropped its science curriculum to become a vocational training school. In 1913 he was named a professor at Bishop College, an all-Black college in Dallas, but his tenure there was brief, as he developed arteriosclerosis and died in 1918. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>45&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; Harvard sociologist William Julius Wilson has studied race relations in the United States, and identified a trend of diversion between middle-class and lower-class blacks. As blacks attain success and middle-class economic status, they tend to move out of depressed urban neighborhoods, which leaves these economically deprived areas without any visible success stories, without "traditional values" leadership, and without neighbors who could provide contacts for employment possibilities. With few jobs and little leadership, American ghettos are filled with chronic, community-wide unemployment that leads residents toward makes crime appear to be the most viable tactic for success. Wilson has concluded that, as racial barriers have dissolved, the continued poverty of urban blacks is less a product of racial prejudice than a result of the changing economic landscape.<p> Wilson's prescription for breaking this cycle of doom involves "race neutral" government-backed jobs and health programs. "Affirmative action," he writes, "has to be combined with a broader program of social reform that would emphasize social rights: the right to employment, the right to education, the right to good health." <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>44&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; American entomologist Edward O. Wilson is a founder of the science of evolutionary psychology, and a renowned authority on sociobiology. He is the world's foremost expert on social insects, such as ants, bees, termites, and wasps, and &mdash; believing that no species, not even our own, should be excluded from evolutionary analysis &mdash; he has extended his field of research to include the role biology plays in the evolution of human society.<p> His work suggests that human behavior, in the broadest sense, is a naturally selected result of the processes of evolution. Even charity, Wilson argues, may be a genetically-based attribute, and may have evolved through natural selection. Introduced in his 1975 book <i>Sociobiology</i>, such ideas were deemed controversial for their implied or inferred message of "biological destiny," and throughout the 1970s and '80s Wilson was criticized by [[Stephen Jay Gould]] and some other respected scientists. The basic premise of his research and writings in this area, however, have been increasingly accepted.<p> Wilson believes that the education of third-world women is crucial to saving the environment, as in underdeveloped nations better educated women could help control population growth. He also recommends smaller cars, increased water efficiency, and less meat-eating. His book <i>Biodiversity</i> introduced that term, and he has long been at the forefront of efforts to reduce human-induced environmental degradation. With population biologist Robert MacArthur (1930-1972), he developed a theory explaining the geographical distribution of species on islands. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>43&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; Nettie Stevens graduated from a public high school, then worked as a teacher for two years. She saved funds from her wages to enroll in a four-year teaching college, which she completed in just two years. Her exact whereabouts over the next several years have been lost to history, but she is known to have worked as a teacher and librarian, again putting aside much of her wages. In 1896, at the age of 35, she traveled across the American frontier and enrolled at the new Stanford University, where she earned her Master's degree in biology. She earned her doctorate at Bryn Mawr, studying under future Nobel laureate [[Thomas H. Morgan]].<p> She is best known for her 1905 paper titled "Studies in Spermatogenesis with Especial Reference to the Accessory Chromosome," in which she reported experiments proving that an organism's sex is determined by the inheritance of a specific X or Y chromosome. Discovered concurrently but independently by [[Edmund Beecher Wilson]], their work provided the first scientifically established link between inherited characteristics and a particular chromosome, and ended a long-simmering scientific debate over how an organism's sex is determined.<p> As Stevens' scientific reputation grew, Bryn Mawr established a professorship for her, but she contracted breast cancer and died at the age of 51, before she could accept the appointment. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>42&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; Biologist Edmund Beecher Wilson studied the role of heredity in cellular development and, working independently of Nettie Maria Stevens (1861-1912), both Wilson and Stevens were the first to describe the chromosomal basis of sex, in concurrent papers published in 1905. Their work effectively settled the long scientific debate over whether sex is determined by heredity or by environmental factors.<p> Wilson, who was born before [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]]'s <i>Orgin of Species</i> was published, is generally cited as America's first cellular biologist. He wrote extensively on cellular structure and general biology, and stressed that biology is comprised of different factors, including embryology, evolution, and heredity. He headed Columbia University's Zoology Department in the early decades of the 20th century, where with his friend [[Thomas H. Morgan]] and his student [[Hermann J. Muller]] Wilson helped establish the modern science of genetics. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>41&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; Unlike [[Mary Martin]] and [[Julie Andrews]], the actresses who most famously portrayed her, the real Maria von Trapp was not particularly pretty, and not at all lacking in confidence. She was described by those who knew her as "a big woman, ... loud and forceful" and "a bitch." She was prone to outbursts of fiery temper, throwing things and screaming at the top of her lungs when she was frustrated. "Telling her to do something," a family friend explained, "was like telling a stone what to do."<p> Maria Augusta Kutschera was born on a train en route to Vienna, on 26 January 1905. Her parents both died while she was a young child, and she was raised by a stern judge who was not related to her and, she said later, routinely beat her. She converted to Catholicism when she was 18 &mdash; the judge, she said, had always mocked religion and despised Catholics &mdash; and within months she joined the Nonnberg Abbey, a Benedictine monastery in Salzberg, intending to become a nun.<p> After two years at the abbey, she was assigned to work as a tutor for a local baron's 11-year-old daughter, who was too ill to attend school. The Baron was Georg von Trapp, an Austrian submarine commander who had been granted his aristocratic title for heroics in the First World War. His first wife, Agathe Whitehead von Trapp (1890-1922), had died of scarlet fever a few years earlier, leaving the Baron to raise their seven children alone, with only the help of the family's butlers and maids.<p> In <i>The Sound of Music</i>, the widow von Trapp is a cold and distant character who had forbidden the children to sing; in reality he was warm and outgoing, and often played and sang with his children. As seen in the play and movie, he did have the children wear matching sailor's suits, and he did call them by using a naval whistle. Maria arrived at the estate wearing a frumpy dress and carrying a guitar, but she was never the children's governess. She frequently said, though, that she "fell in love" with the children, much more than she ever fell in love with the Baron. She wrote later that she did not love the Baron when they were married in 1927, and she was dismayed and almost sickened at the thought of sleeping with him.<p> The Baron and Baroness von Trapp had been married for five years when disaster struck in 1932, but Nazis were not involved. The family fortune was lost when a bank collapsed, causing the Baron to suffer a nervous breakdown, but Maria, as usual, took charge of the situation. She fired the household servants, took boarders in the mansion's many rooms, and decided to put her musically-inclined stepchildren on stage as a singing act. The von Trapp Family Choir, as they were originally called, became and remained very popular in Austria as the children grew up, and their concerts were the family's main source of income. Their career was not managed by anyone like the pushy promoter seen in the film; Maria herself managed the family choir, with the help of their parish priest.<p> In 1938, when word reached the von Trapps' villa that the Germans had annexed Austria, they decided to leave the country. Their escape, however, did not involve climbing the Alps or sneaking about in the dead of night or any kind of dramatic escape from advancing Nazis. They simply bought train tickets to England by way of Italy (not Switzerland), and once in London they sailed for America. In the United States they tried to replicate the family's success as a musical act, but there was little audience for adolescents who sang Renaissance, Baroque, and Austrian folk songs with German-language lyrics. Georg von Trapp purchased a 660-acre farm in Vermont, where the family ran a music camp. Dropping the "von," they became known as the Trapp Family Singers, and gradually became more successful as they altered their repertoire.<p> Largely to promote the family's singing act, Maria von Trapp wrote a somewhat fictionalized autobiography in 1949, titled <i>The Story of the Trapp Family Singers</i>. The book sold well and sold lots of tickets to the Singers' concerts, and became the basis for the last collaboration of [[Richard Rodgers]] and [[Oscar Hammerstein II]], <i>The Sound of Music</i>. The play opened on Broadway in 1959, and it was a smash hit, running for more than three years and adapted into a classic film in 1965. In the play and film, all of the children's names were changed, and Maria von Trapp can be briefly glimpsed in the background as Julie Andrews sings "I Have Confidence".<p> After the family fled Austria, the von Trapp estate was used as Nazi SS commander [[Heinrich Himmler]]'s Austrian headquarters from 1939 until the end of World War II. On the family's former farmland in Vermont, several von Trapp descendants still run the Trapp Family Lodge, a luxurious, Austrian-style vacation destination, which has been the subject of long-running feuds and a lawsuit pitting Trapp against Trapp. Maria is buried on the lodge's grounds. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>40&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; American biologist and entrepreneur developed a new technique to identify unknown genes in other organisms, cells, or tissues, using small segments of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) called expressed sequence tags (ESTs). He then attempted to patent the gene fragments identified through this technique, a move considered controversial in scientific circles.<p> In 1995 Venter's team determined the genomic sequence of <i>Haemophilus influenzae</i>, a bacterium that can cause meningitis. In 2000 Venter's team announced that it had determined a "rough draft" sequence of the human genome, work which was completed three years later. In 2007 he announced the first successful mapping of the complete (six-billion-letter) genome of an individual human &mdash; his own diploid (two complete sets of chromosomes, one from each parent) genome.<p> In 2010, Venter's team announced that he and his team had sewn together strands of DNA to create the first man-made bacterial cell, <i>Mycoplasma mycoides</i> JCVI-syn1.0. After inserting his synthetically-designed genome, the cell created proteins according to the blueprint in the synthetic genome, and continued acting as a normal bacterial cell.<p> Venter has also contributed to the sequencing of the genomes of the fruit fly, mouse, and rat, and he is the founder or co-founder of The Institute for Genomic Research (1992), Celera Genomics (1998), Synthetic Genomics (2005), and the J. Craig Venter Research Institute (2006). Critics and colleagues have described Venter as an egomaniac; his response is: "I wouldn't have mapped the human genome if I was lacking in confidence." <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>39&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; Russian biologist Nikolai Timofeev-Ressovsky was a founder of the Russian scientific school of genetics, and at the forefront of Soviet studies of radiation genetics, evolution and biosphere theory. An internationally respected geneticist and evolutionist, his work was influential in related fields of science, inside and outside of Russia, and his rather dramatic life story was retold inDaniil Granin's 1987 novel <i>The Bison</i>.<p> In 1926, Timofeev and his wife, geneticist Helena Alexandrovna Fidler, were assigned to work in Germany as part of a Soviet-German scientific exchange program, and they remained in Germany for decades, as Timofeev's research on the physico-chemical nature of radiation damage grew widely respected. Timofeev and Fidler remained in Germany even after the Nazis came to power in 1933 (decades after their deaths, they have occasionally been accused of sympathizing with Nazi theories of racial superiority and supporting eugenics, though the evidence of this is less than conclusive). In 1937 they were ordered by Soviet officials to return to the USSR, but they refused to abandon their work, their laboratory, and their students.<p> Another motivation for staying in Germany was easily understood &mdash; the "politicized science" of [[Trofim Lysenko]] had led to the arrest and imprisonment of numerous leading scientists in the Soviet Union. Timofeev's two younger brothers had been arrested and sent to separate Gulags (one was executed, the other survived), and several relatives of Timofeev's wife had also been arrested and imprisoned. Working in Germany, though, presented its own difficulties. When war broke out, Timofeev and his family were forbidden to leave, but he was allowed to continue his scientific work, under increasingly authoritarian oversight. Their son joined an anti-fascist group, which led to his arrest, imprisonment, and execution. When the Soviet Army took East Berlin in 1945, Timofeev was arrested by the People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs (NKVD, or in common parlance, the Soviet's secret police). He charged with treason for his extended time in Germany, and sentenced to ten years in prison.<p> For the first two years of his sentence, he was held at a Gulag in North Kazakhstan, where his eyesight was permanently damaged by near-starvation conditions. By 1947, Soviet authorities had noticed that imprisoning so many of the nation's top scientists had left Soviet scientific research at a distinct disadvantage, and Timofeev was transferred to a secret scientific installation in the Ural mountains near Sverdlovsk. There, along with numerous other imprisoned Soviet scientists, he studied radiobiology (the biological effects of exposure to radiation). He could see well enough to work, but not well enough to easily read, so his wife was brought to the facility to read for him and, effectively, to act as his eyes. When his prison term ended in 1955, Timofeev and Fidler decided to continue their work at the facility, which was eventually named the Institute of Ecology of the Academy of Science.<p> As a result of his work in Germany and subsequent imprisonment in Russia, he was never again allowed to leave the Soviet Union. In the early 1960s he was appointed to head the Genetics department at the Institute of Medical Radiology inObninsk , on condition that he obtain the required doctorate, so at the age of 63 he prepared and defended a dissertation on radiation ecology, receiving hisDSc from the USSR Academy of Science. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>38&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; In his seminal book <i>On Growth and Form</i>, mathematician and biologist D'Arcy Thompson presented his "theory of transformation," that a species evolves into another species not through a series of minor changes to various body parts but through large-scale transformations of the entire animal, and that the growth and form of any species of plant or animals can be represented through relatively simple mathematical equations. For example, he used linear and non-linear functions to show how the corresponding bones of similar species are adapted to their function, and morphed images of baboon skulls into the skulls of related species, including other primates and humans. Thorough, literary, and surprisingly readable, Thompson's book has been described as among the finest single books to teach inquisitive readers about biology, chemistry, physics, and the power of creative thought. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>37&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; French Jesuit priest and paleontologist Pierre Teilhard de Chardin was fascinated by geology and the natural sciences, even as a child. Even in the priesthood, he never abandoned his scientific curiosity, a pursuit which, he believed, gave glory to God. As part of his Jesuit training, he was assigned to teach at the Jesuit College of the Holy Family in Cairo, Egypt, a post which allowed him to observe Egyptian ruins and ignited his interest in geology and paleontology. He later read [[Henri Bergson]]'s <i>Creative Evolution</i>, which irrevocably convinced him of the fact of evolution.<p> He lectured in Paris on the science of biological evolution, but his teachings were seen as a challenge to the Catholic theology, though he never meant them as such. He remained a devout Christian all his life, but he was effectively silenced by the Church, forbidden to lecture or publish on his theological and scientific perspectives, and exiled from his native France. After completing his doctorate in 1922, he joined a paleontological expedition to China, where he remained for almost twenty years, and took a scientific post at China's Peking Union Medical College. From 1929 he oversaw the excavations at the "Peking man" site near Zhoukoudian.<p> His best-known works, including <i>The Divine Milieu</i> and <i>The Phenomenon of Man</i>, were written in the 1920s and '30s, but were not allowed to be published until after his death in 1955. In his writings, Teilhard reconciled the seeming conflict between his religious and scientific training by proposing what is called the Omega Point, which stipulates that humanity occupies a special rank among the species and a special place within the spiritual universe, and that human beings are evolving toward an "Omega Point" as the culmination of human existence on Earth. In <i>The Divine Milieu</i>,Tielhard wrote, "We may, perhaps, imagine that the creation was finished long ago. But that would be quite wrong. It continues still more magnificently, and at the highest levels of the world."<p> His mother claimed to be a great-grandniece of the French Enlightenment writer Francois-Marie Arouet, commonly known as [[Voltaire]]. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>36&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; Hans Sloane was a 17th century British doctor whose hobby was collecting antiquities and coins, shells and rocks, unusual plants and animals, and other curios. He worked as an assistant to [[Thomas Sydenham]] until the age of 27, when he was appointed as the personal physician for Christopher Monck (1653-1688), the newly-appointed Governor of Jamaica (which was then a British colony). On the island, he began collecting artifacts from the islands' locals, and took detailed notes on whatever intrigued him, including he island's social customs, geology, weather, and earthquakes.<p> He is credited with inventing milk chocolate, during his time in Jamaica. The locals had long mixed cocoa bean powder with water, and drank this mixture for its alleged medicinal properties, but Sloane found their watered chocolate distasteful. He instead tried mixing the bean powder with milk, sugar, and other additives, and finding this "milk chocolate" much more palatable, he pronounced it healthful and medicinal. Decades after Sloane's death, chocolatier [[John Cadbury]] purchased and adapted Sloane's recipe to manufacture milk chocolate drinks.<p> Dr Sloane's post as the Jamaican Governor's physician lasted only fifteen months, ending when his patient died at the age of 35. Returning to London, Sloane brought with him hundreds of unusual items from Jamaica and the neighboring islands, including plant and animal specimens that the English had never seen before, which made him something of a scientific celebrity. He established a medical practice in the upper-class Bloomsbury district of London, where his patients included [[Queen Anne]] and [[King George I]] and [[King George II|II]]. He also made it his habit to see impoverished patients daily, until 10:00 AM, at no charge.<p> He sold "Sir Hans Sloane's Milk Chocolate" to apothecaries, marketing it as a medicinal product, and between his chocolate business and his medical practice, Sloane had considerable funds to continue purchasing oddities, antiquities, books, and even other collectors' complete collections. He eventually bought the house next door to his residence, just to house his enormous agglomeration of fossils and gemstones, flora and fauna, insects and mollusks, prints and paintings, dried plants and other botanical items, and thousands of books and journals.<p> In 1727 he succeeded [[Isaac Newton]] as President of the Royal Society, and in 1741 he retired from his medical practice. In his old age, Sloane expressed the desire that his collections not be sold piecemeal, and when he died in 1753, his last will & testament stipulated that the Crown could acquire his entire collection for the relatively reasonable sum of £20,000. The British Parliament acquiesced and purchased the collection, which consisted of 23,000 coins and medals, 50,000 books, prints and manuscripts, thousands of dried plants, and 1,125 other "things relating to the customs of ancient times." Renamed the British Museum, Sloane's collection was opened to the public on 15 January 1759. A bust of Sloane is now the first display visitors pass as they enter the Museum, and he is the namesake of London's Sloane Street, Sloane Square, and Hans Street. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>35&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; <b>James V. Taranik</b>: Geophysicist and remote-sensing technology expert who worked at NASA during the early space shuttle missions. Later, as President of the Desert Research Institute, he adapted the institute's sophisticated satellite imagery to new areas of research, including environmental research and geological exploration. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>34&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; Philosopher, mathematician, and nonconformist Bertrand Russell was the grandson of John Russell (1792-1878), who was twice Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. Bertrand and his brother were raised by their paternal grandparents after their father's death in 1876. His maternal grandfather, Edward John Stanley (1802-1869), was a long-time member of the House of Commons and served as Postmaster General of the United Kingdom from 1860-66. His godfather was [[John Stuart Mill]]. Russell held two titles: 3rd Earl Russell of Kingston Russell and Viscount Amberley of Amberley and of Ardsalla.<p> As a mathematician, he made fundamental contributions to contemporary formal logic and analytic philosophy, and with [[Alfred North Whitehead]] he authored the landmark three-volume work <i>Principia Mathematica</i>. He also developed Russell's paradox, which supposes that S is defined as the set of all sets that are not members of themselves, and then asks, is S a member of itself? If it is, then it cannot be, and if it is not then it must be. Russell illustrated his paradox with the story of a town that has only one barber  all the men in town either shave themselves or are shaved by the barber, and the barber only shaves men who do not shave themselves, so who shaves the barber? If, as stipulated, the barber shaves only the men who do not shave themselves, then he cannot shave himself. To a lay reader this might sound like the stuff of riddles, but to advanced mathematicians it suggests that the foundational logic of math may contradict itself. To address this, Russell and Whitehead developed the Theory of Types, in which mathematics is redrawn into "simple theory" and "ramified theory," and, within the latter, the axiom of reducibility.<p> He was known for taking controversial political stands, expressed eloquently in numerous essays and books, works for which Russel won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1950. He was a founding member of the Men's League for Women's Suffrage in 1907, and at the outbreak of the First World War he co-founded the No-Conscription Fellowship, a group which fought against mandatory conscription. At the height of the Cold War in 1955, he was one of eleven prominent scientists who signed what is now called the Russell-[[Albert Einstein|Einstein]] Manifesto, calling for peaceful resolutions to international conflict and highlighting the dangers of nuclear warfare. In 1957 he became the founding president of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament.<p> He ran for Parliament thrice, in 1907, 1922, and 1923, losing each time. For urging men to refuse the military draft during WWI, he was fired from his lecturer's post at Cambridge, and twice convicted and once jailed for violations of the Defence of the Realm Act. In 1940 he was appointed to a professorship at City College of New York, but after a public outcry he was deemed "bereft of moral fiber" and unfit to teach, and fired before his first class could convene. Toward the end of his life, he questioned the [[@gov::us-warren-commission]]'s conclusion that [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] had acted alone in assassinating US President [[John F. Kennedy]], and led an unofficial war crimes tribunal that condemned US atrocities during the Vietnam war.<p> At Cambridge, he was the supervisor of Austrian philosopher [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]]. His brother, Frank Russell, was a member of the House of Lords and a close friend of [[George Santayana]], but is best known for being convicted of bigamy. Bertrand Russell's son, John Conrad Russell, married Susan Doniphan Lindsay, the daughter of poet [[Vachel Lindsay]]. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>33&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; German philosopher and sociologist Georg Simmel is considered, along with [[Émile Durkheim]] and [[Max Weber]], to be a founder of modern sociology. His work, which he described as an inquiry into the conditions of modern individuality, spanned the fields of epistemology, modernity, money, religion, art and culture, and expanded the scope of sociology to the aesthetic, economic, and political realm.<p>Inspired to some extent by [[Immanuel Kant]]'s principles, Simmel's work reduces social encounters to basic, understandable components, such as the opportunities for alliance or competition that emerge in small groups. His writings have been widely influential on subsequent generations of sociologists, though for almost his entire career Simmel was effectively a volunteer and "honorary" (un-paid) professor, unable to obtain a paid academic position, presumably due to prejudice against his family's Jewish ancestry. His first and only paid position came in France, at the University of Strassburg, four years before his death in 1918. He was a founding member of the German Sociological Association, and his students included [[Martin Buber]]. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>32&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; Working at Michigan State University in the mid-1950s, Canadian physicist Gilbert Plass had access to some of the era's most advanced computers, and used them to develop the first computer models of infrared radiative transfer, calculating how solar and infrared radiation contributes to climate and climate change. His modeling showed that the accelerating accrual of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere, coming primarily from anthropogenic (man-made) sources including rapidly-developing industry and manufacturing, would have a serious impact on planetary climates.<p> Building on the work of [[Svante Arrhenius]] and Guy Stewart Callendar, Plass wrote several articles exploring the link between rising CO2 levels and rising temperatures. His landmark paper "The Carbon Dioxide Theory of Climatic Change" was published in <i>Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society</i> in 1953, and his widely-read report "Carbon Dioxide and the Climate" was published in <i>Scientific American</i> in 1956.<p> In broad terms, Plass's work showed that adding CO2 to the atmosphere increases the absorption of infrared radiation; that the presence of water vapor in the atmosphere does not negate the effect of increased carbon dioxide; and that the oceans could absorb only a relatively small percentage of the increasing man-made carbons, leaving the majority of these carbons to accumulate in the atmosphere.<p> More specifically, he warned that anthropogenic effects on the climate amounted to an experiment already underway with the planet's atmosphere, but that the results of that experiment would not be well-understood for decades. "If at the end of [the 20th] century," he wrote, "measurements show that the carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere has risen appreciably and at the same time the temperature has continued to rise throughout the world, it will be firmly established that carbon dioxide is an important factor in causing climatic change."<p> Plass predicted that CO2 levels would rise 30% from 1900 to 2000, warming planetary temperatures by about 1ºC  findings which have proven remarkably prescient, especially considering the equipment and data available in the 1950s. The most recent research suggests that CO2 rose 37% during the 20th century, and that planetary temperatures rose by about 0.7ºC.<p> Plass also studied electron emissions, electromagnetic and gravitational action, electrostatic electron lenses, neutron physics, and nuclear fission, and worked on the Manhattan Project that developed the first atomic weapons. He was a lifelong collector of stamps, coins, and classical music, and for twenty years beginning in 1978, he produced and hosted <i>Collector's Choice</i>, a weekly program of classical music that aired (and still airs, in reruns) on Texas A&M's public radio station, KAMU. Some of his stamp collections were displayed under the pseudonym Norman Sunier. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>32&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; Cecil Pickett: Pharmaceutical research scientist who worked for Merck and later Schering-Plough, before those companies merged, and retired as President of R&D at Biogen Idec in 2009. Played a major role in development of several new drugs, including Ezetimibe (marketed as Ezetrol and used to treat high cholesterol), Montelukast (marketed as Singulair, to treat asthma) and Rofecoxib (marketed as Vioxx, to treat arthritis), as well as medicines used in the treatment of AIDS, cancer, and Parkinson's disease. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>31&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; Mathematician and historian John Venn attended Cambridge, then became an Anglican priest, serving first at the church in Cheshunt, Hertfordshire, and later in Mortlake, Surrey. In 1862 he began teaching at Cambridge, where he did his best-known work, developing and popularizing what are now called Venn diagrams, a technique which uses overlapping circles to diagram the differences and commonality of <i>sets</i> (classes of things or ideas).<p> With his son he wrote a two-volume history of Cambridge, and complied an extensive database of biographical information on some 136,000 Cambridge graduates and staff, from "the earliest times" to the dawn of the 20th century. He also devised a theory of induction, studied probability theory and the philosophy of science, and invented a machine that bowled balls for cricket practice. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>30&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; British physician, pharmacologist, and scientist Edward Mellanby conducted research that established the role of vitamin D deficiency in rickets, though Vitamin D had not yet been discovered. He was teaching at King's College for Women in London when he began his study of the disease, a childhood malady characterized by softening of the bones. By 1919, his work had shown that dogs developed rickets if kept indoors and fed a restricted diet, but recovered quickly if cod liver oil was added to their diet. He concluded that a dietary element, a fat-soluble factor (later identified as vitamin D), was the key to preventing and curing rickets. Later research showed that the key element in Mellanby's experiment was Vitamin D, which can be absorbed through diet or from sunlight, which the dogs had been denied.<p> In other research, he showed that Vitamin A influences the development of bones, and established that agenized bread can cause of hysteria in dogs. His wife, physiologist May Mellanby, conducted research that helped establish how decaying or broken teeth are "remineralized" and restrengthened, if sufficient nutrients are present in the patient's diet. Mellanby served as Secretary of the UK's Medical Research Council, and remained active in research even after his retirement in 1949. In 1951 he helped establish the Central Drug Research Institute in Lucknow, India, where he served as the Institute's first Director. After a second retirement, he died in his London laboratory in 1955. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>29&frac12;.</b></font>&nbsp; Janice Hahn: Teacher, corporate executive, and Los Angeles City Council member elected to US Congress in 2011, succeeding [[Jane Harman]]. Her brother, [[James K. Hahn]], was Mayor of Los Angeles in the early 2000s. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>29.</b></font>&nbsp; Trained as a mathematician, Sir Roger Penrose is better known for his work in cosmology, including his theory of "cosmic censorship", which suggests that no naked singularities other than the Big Bang exist or can exist in the universe. His contributions to relativity theory have been described as second only to [[Albert Einstein]]'s. He is also known for an innovative tiling of the affine plane, now called the Penrose tiling, and for his description of a mechanism to extract energy from a [[Roy Kerr|Kerr]] black hole. In collaboration with [[Stephen Hawking]] he identified the basic distinguishing characteristics of black holes, and shared the 1988 Wolf Prize for Physics. His uncle was the British artist Roland Algernon Penrose (1900-1984). <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>28.</b></font>&nbsp; Probably the most influential sociologist during much of the 20th century, American sociologist Talcott Parsons brought together the theories of French sociologist [[Émile Durkheim]], and economists [[Alfred Marshall]] and [[Max Weber]], among others. His work sought to construct a single overarching structural-functional theory to explain and classify both general and specific characteristics of human societies, and brought elements of clinical psychology and social anthropology into the study of sociology. His landmark book <i>The Structure of Social Action</i> was vastly influential through the 1970s, and Parsons also introduced Weber's work to American audiences, translating Weber's <i>The Theory of Social and Economic Organization</i> into English. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>27.</b></font>&nbsp; Sociologist Robert E. Park worked as a railroad laborer for almost a year before enrolling in college, first at the University of Minnesota and later at the University of Michigan, where he became a friend of [[John Dewey]]. After graduating he worked for a decade as a newspaper reporter before attending Harvard, and there he studied under [[87308|William James]] and earned his Master's degree. He then moved to Germany and enrolled at the University of Berlin, where he took his first course in sociology, taught by [[GeorgSimmel]], and became fascinated by the topic.<p> He earned his doctorate in sociology at the University of Heidelberg, and became a leading proponent of a new "ethnographic" theory of social movements. He pioneered observational studies of homeless men, juvenile delinquents, and impoverished families and communities. He worked extensively among Africans and African-Americans, and proposed what was called a "race relations cycle," wherein minority immigrants to America arrive as competitors to the white majority, then pass through stages of conflict and accommodation before becoming assimilated into US society. His work advanced ethnic and urban studies and helped to develop the field of sociology, and his 1921 book <i>Introduction to the Science of Sociology</i>, co-authored with [[Ernest Burgess]], became a standard in the field.<p> He briefly worked as press agent for the Congo Reform Association, a group dedicated to more humane government in that African nation, and he was a founding member of the Committee on Urban Conditions Among Negroes, now known as the Urban League. He spent a decade working in public relations for [[Booker T. Washington]] at the Tuskegee Institute. Returning to academia in 1914, he taught at the University of Chicago, where his students included noted black sociologist [[114306|Charles S. Johnson]], and later joined Johnson on the faculty at the historically-black Fisk University. He held that sociology was similar to his first career, journalism, and saw himself as "reporting on the long-term trends which record what is actually going on rather than what, on the surface, merely seems to be going on."<p> According to a story often told by Park, when he was a teenager in Red Wing, Minnesota, he was approached by a man who asked for directions, and he later learned that the man was [[95580|Jesse James]], who had just robbed a bank in nearbyNorthfield, MN. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>26.</b></font>&nbsp; Born in Scotland, 19th century fruit rancher, philosopher, and conservationist John Muir immigrated to America with his family when he was ten years old, settling in Wisconsin. In his teens he invented an alarm-clock bed that literally shook its occupant onto the floor, a device he used to gain extra reading time in the early morning hours. As a young man he attended the University of Wisconsin for three years before dropping out to attend what he called the "University of the Wilderness" &mdash; his wanderlust. He wandered along the shores of the Wisconsin and Mississippi rivers, took work in Canada at a broom factory, then came to Indianapolis and labored in a carriage repair shop. At the latter workplace he suffered a severe eye injury when an awl pierced his right eyeball, followed soon by what is now called sympathetic ophthalmia, in which the second eye mimics the injury to the first, leaving Muir's eyesight in both eyes seriously damaged.<p> In the course of six months of bed-rest and recuperation, he promised himself that if he recovered his full vision, he would never again return to work in an ordinary job. In September 1867, about six months after the accident, he deemed himself well enough to embark on a 1,000-mile walk to the Gulf of Mexico, where he contracted a mild case of malaria. He then took a steamer to California, where he settled and stayed for decades, and conducted the work for which he is best known. In a series of essays published in 1889 he urged that a Yosemite be declared a national preserve, and in 1890 the area was designated Yosemite National Park. He established the Sierra Club in 1892, and served as that organization's president for the rest of his life. He traveled extensively, visiting Africa, Australia, China, Europe, Japan, South America, but was best known for his extensive writings and activism to protect the Yosemite Valley in California, and is remembered as a founding father of America's national parks system.<p> Muir spent his last years leading the fight against a plan to flood Yosemite's Hetch Hetchy Valley, but nine years after his 1914 death, O'Shaughnessy Dam was constructed inside Yosemite National Park, creating a giant reservoir of drinking water for San Francisco and drowning the Valley. The Sierra Club has continued to advocate for the dam's removal and restoration of the valley. Muir is the namesake of the Muir Woods National Monument, a 550-acre park near San Francisco. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>25.</b></font>&nbsp; Samuel Finley Breese Morse studied art under [[Benjamin West]], and worked as a successful and respected sculptor, painter, and art teacher until, based on a rudimentary understanding and curiosity of electricity, he invented the telegraph. In brief, the telegraph sends electricity over a wire, and the electric flow can be interrupted by holding down the key of the transmission device, resulting in gaps short (dots) or long (dashes), which are recorded on a receiving device and can be interpreted by readers of "Morse code." In 1832 he drew his first sketches of the device's transmission apparatus, with a means for switching an electric circuit on and off, and receiver, which records the signal using an electromagnet. By 1836 he had constructed a working model, which he subsequently revised based on then-recent advances by physicist [[Joseph Henry]].<p> With further refinements by Alfred Vail (1807-59), Morse filed a patent for the device in 1837, and with extensive financial backing by Vail's cousin [[Theodore Vail]] (who was the founder of AT&T) they were able to secure the patent in 1849 against several other inventors of similar devices. With a $30,000 grant from Congress in 1843, the nation's first telegraph wiring was constructed between Washington DC and Baltimore, Maryland, and on 24 May 24 1844, Morse used a transmitter in the US Supreme Court Chambers to send a message to Vail in Baltimore" "What hath God wrought!"<p> Within a decade more than 20,000 miles of telegraph wire had been posted across America, allowing business to be conducted instantaneously across the continent, making rail travel arrangements more feasible, and facilitating the development of the American West. Morse's patent provided enough money to keep him comfortable for the rest of his life, but since had no desire to run a business, he had his interest and earnings managed by former Postmaster General [[Amos Kendall]]. He was a key underwriter in the founding of Vassar College in 1861. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>24.</b></font>&nbsp; In 1957, while still attending college, chemist Robert Gore developed a method adapting polytetrafluoroethylene resin (PTFE, commonly called Teflon) to create heavily-insulated wire and cable. This became a key product for W. L. Gore & Associates, the firm founded with his father in 1958. In 1973, he invented a process for making a porous form of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) resin, characterized by extremely high strength and porosity. His patent, granted in 1976, provided the foundation for the latter development of a waterproof laminate called expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (ePTFE), which is now trademarked as Gore-Tex.<p> An ideal material for winter wear, ePTFE looks and feels like a smooth fabric but is actually comprised of a membrane with about nine-billion microscopic pores per square inch. These holes are many thousands of times smaller than a molecule of water, but hundreds of times larger than a water-vapor molecule, a combination which effectively keeps moisture from rain or snow from penetrating the ePTFE fabric, while allowing perspiration to escape as it evaporates.<p> Gore's invention also has applications in medical prosthesis, strings for musical instruments, and fuel cell design. Present-day media sources frequently cite Rowena Taylor and Gore's father, Wilbert Gore, as co-inventors of ePTFE, but the patent for the "waterproof article for use in, for example, protective clothing", filed in 1978 and granted in 1980, lists only Robert Gore and Samuel B. Allen, Jr as co-inventors.<p> Gore's stepson, [[Chris Coons]], is a US Senator from Delaware. Gore's sister, Susan Gore Otto, made headlines by adopting her ex-husband as her son in 2003, a move currently being challenged in court, which seems intended to gain a larger share of the family's wealth, which, per their father's will, is split evenly among the elder Gore's grandchildren. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>23.</b></font>&nbsp; While working at DuPont's research laboratories, American chemist Roy Plunkett conducted numerous experiments involving refrigeration gases, and headed teams that developed new fluorochemical products and processes that are now used in applications including aerosol, aerospace, electronics, plastics, and refrigeration. His most famous work sprang from a failed refrigerant experiment on 6 April 1938, when he found that an unexpected chemical reaction had occurred. A small quantity of gaseous tetrafluoroethylene had "polymerized" to form polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) resin, a white, waxy substance which proved to be extremely heat-tolerant and stick-resistant.<p> Better known now by the trade names Teflon or Fluon, PTFE was used during World War II in artillery shell fuses, and in the top-secret production of nuclear matter for the Manhattan Project. Non-stick cookware derived from PTFE was first manufactured in the mid-1950s, and in 1976 William and Robert Gore inventged a technique to expand PTFE and bind it in micro-structures called Gore-Tex. Other applications of PTFE have included stain-repellant for carpets, clothing, and furniture; plumber's tape for watertight seals in pipe joints; heavy-duty insulation for wiring and cables; water-sealing for the underside of metals; barrels and bottles for holding corrosive industrial materials; and as the flexible, cold-resistant fabric of space suits worn by astronauts off-planet. It is also an essential component of dental floss.<p> Plunkett, who was a close friend of chemist [[Paul J. Flory]], retired from DuPont in 1975, and died in 1994. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>22.</b></font>&nbsp; As a student, Rosalind Franklin excelled at chemistry, mathematics, and physics, and at Cambridge she studied under [[J. D. Bernal]], becoming a molecular chemist and x-ray crystallographer. She and [[Maurice Wilkins]] were peers in the laboratory at King's College London, where they worked on taking improved x-ray photographs of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), long linear polymers found in the nucleus of a cell and vital to the transmission of genetic information. In the mid-20th century, however, women were widely seen as inferior to men, and though they held the same rank Wilkins treated her as a technician, not as an equal. She stayed at King's College for only a few years before being forced out in large part by political pressure orchestrated by Wilkins. After leaving she spent several years studying viruses, then developed ovarian cancer and passed away in 1958.<p> Franklin said that the time she spent at King's College was the most frustrating period of her life. The record, however, suggests that she was a top-level scientist who made major contributions to the DNA research that won Nobel Prizes in 1962 for [[Francis Crick]], [[James Watson]], and her uncooperative colleague Wilkins. At King's College, she pointed out inconsistencies in an early Crick-Watson theory that proposed three, not two, DNA chains, and she presented a seminar describing some aspects of the double-helix nature of DNA prior to publication of Watson and Crick's landmark paper. Watson acknowledged that it was Franklin's crystallographic imagery of hydrated DNA (shown to him by Wilkins, without Franklin's knowledge or permission) that inspired his "eureka moment" for unraveling the double-helix structure of DNA.<p> In his autobiography Watson criticized Franklin &mdash; for not wearing lipstick, for her drab choice in clothes, and for her "belligerent moods" that made it "very difficult for [Wilkins] to maintain a dominant position." When she resigned from King's College, Wilkins wrote triumphantly to Crick that the "smoke of witchcraft" would soon be lifted from the laboratory.<p> Franklin made respected contributions to the study of coal, carbon, graphite, viruses, and, of course, DNA, and she published nearly 50 scientific papers, a remarkable achievement for woman or her era who lived only 37 years. She is the namesake of Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science in Illinois, and the Royal Society's Rosalind Franklin Award, presented annually for outstanding work in science, technology, engineering. or mathematics. Her great-uncle, [[Herbert Samuel]], was the first High Commissioner of Palestine. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>21.</b></font>&nbsp; Cricket superstar Sachin Tendulkar became India's youngest Test cricketer when he was 16, and has been widely acclaimed as one of the finest batsmen in the game's history. He is the career leader in run-scoring and centuries in both Test and One Day International (ODI) cricket, and he was the first batsmen to score a double hundred in ODI play. He was already famous enough in India and in cricket to usually be referred to by his first name alone, before his crowning achievement in 2011, leading the Indian national team to its first Cricket World Cup championship since 1983. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>20.</b></font>&nbsp; Sybil (frequently spelled Sibyl or Sibbell) Ludington was the eldest of twelve children in the family of Colonel Henry Ludington, who commanded the 7th Regiment of the Dutchess County Militia during the American Revolutionary War and oversaw a regional network of anti-Tory spies. On the stormy night of 26 April 1777, a rider on horseback brought word toLudington's home that the British had landed in Long Island Sound and were planning to attack the Connecticut town of Danbury, vital both for its strategic location and its storehouse of revolutionary armaments. Urgently needing to rouse the volunteers under his command, Col Ludington was faced with a dilemma &mdash; he could not make the ride himself, as he needed to remain at his home to organize the rallying defense, and the horseman who had alerted him was tool weary from his journey to continue.<p> According to legend, the Colonel turned to his daughter Sybil, who was barely 16 years of age, and asked her to make the ride. Through the rainy night on unlit, muddy trails, she is said to have ridden 40 miles to the towns of Carmel,Mahopac, Stormville , conveying word to the soldiers to gather at her father's house at daybreak. The troops were rallied, but too late &mdash; much ofDanbury was burned by the British, though the American militia was able to block the King's men from advancing into New York.<p> The story of Sybil Ludington's ride is inspiring, and has been compared to the heroics of [[49220|Paul Revere]] two years earlier, with two key distinction &mdash; Ludington's ride was more than twice the distance of Revere's, and Revere was a trained military officer while Ludington was a teenaged girl whose assignment came as a complete surprise. Markers have been erected along the route she is believed to have traveled, but historians have questioned the veracity of these events, since no mention of her ride appeared in print during her lifetime. Her purported heroism was first described in a biography of her father, which was published in 1907 by two of his grandchildren. Her nephew Harrison Ludington (1812-1891) was elected Mayor of Milwaukee and Governor of Wisconsin in the 1870s. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>19.</b></font>&nbsp; German-American psychoanalyst Karen Horney (pronounced HORN-eye) rejected [[Sigmund Freud]]'s contention that "penis envy" is an underlying cause of psychological problems in women, and argued that environmental and social experiences contribute to a person's developing personality and personality disorders to a much greater extent than the biological and instinctual events that Freud held were pivotal.<p> Horney's work is now considered influential and non-controversial, but during the latter years of her career she was effective shunned from mainstream psychoanalysis for challenging Freud, which led to her founding of the American Institute for Psychoanalysis in 1941. She maintained that all humans have a yearning for self-realization, that neurosis blocks and prevents healthy development, and that the root cause of most neurosis is a lack of guidance, love, and respect.<p> Her daughter, Brigitte Horney, became a German film and television actress of moderate renown. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>18.</b></font>&nbsp; Russian ballerina Anna Pavlova was, in her time, the world's most famous dancer. Born to an unwed mother, she never knew her father, but he was widely whispered to have been Russian banking millionaire Lazar Polyakov (1843-1914) &mdash; which would help explain how the daughter of a washerwoman gained admittance to the prestigious Imperial Ballet School. Inspired by attending a performance of <i>The Sleeping Beauty</i>, she decided to become a ballerina when she was eight years of age, and through adolescence she practiced more than eight hours daily at the school, where her instructors included the absolute elite of Russian ballet.<p> She made her professional debut in <i>La Fille Mal Gardée</i> at 17, and launched her first European tour in 1908, when the very notion of a woman headlining a dance tour was considered radical. She became famous worldwide for her seemingly frail but flexible dance style, critically acclaimed as lyrical and groundbreaking, and her performances in <i>Giselle</i>, <i>The Sleeping Beauty</i>, and <i>The Swan</i> were legendary. She also toured in <i>The Dying Swan</i>, a widely-praised duet created and danced by Pavlova and Mikhail Fokine (1880-1942).<p> She continued touring until a minor train accident exposed her to winter weather in 1931, leading to a cold that developed into a painful cough, which caused serious respiratory problems that took her live within weeks at the age of 49. Her last words were reported to be, "Get my swan costume ready." <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>17.</b></font>&nbsp; American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg is known for his research into the developing stages of moral judgment in youth. In his best known study, he conducted interviews about moral issues with 72 white boys in Chicago, presenting these children with a classic philosophical question called the Heinz dilemma, in which a man must decide whether to steal to obtain an expensive but life-saving medication for his wife.<p> From his interviews, Kohlberg concluded that children younger than 10 or 11 years tend to see moral dilemmas simplistically, believing that rules are absolute, while older children tend to consider more complex aspects of such thorny questions. He detailed six stages of moral judgment: Obedience, in which the boys simply responded that stealing was wrong; self-interest, wherein Heinz measures the consequences to himself; conformity, where the man measures what others would expect him to do in such a situation; law-and-order, which has Heinz questioning the legality and possibly penalties of theft; human rights, weighing Heinz's wife's right to live against the drugmaker's property rights; and universal human ethics, considering his wife's life against a hypothetical society where everyone stole what they needed.<p> Advancing [[Jean Piaget]]'s theories of moral development in children and adolescents, he advocated a parallelism or convergence between psychological descriptive and philosophical-normative analyses of the moral stages, which he conceived as being created and re-created as individuals interact with and within their social environment. He maintained that higher levels of moral development must be justified on rational grounds, not merely by appeal to the order of nature, law, or religious authority. His interpretation of the boys' answers to the Heinz dilemma was sometimes considered controversial, and some psychologists still adhere to Piaget's theory, which offered only two stages of moral development. Still, Kohlberg's work helped reintroduce moral questions into the field of psychology, which in the years prior to his work had been almost entirely concerned with behaviorism.<p> Kohlberg contracted a parasitic infection while working in Belize in 1971, and spent the rest of his life in near-constant, debilitating pain. On 17 January 1987 he parked his car on a residential street in Winthrop, Massachusetts, then walked into Boston Harbor and intentionally drowned himself. His body was found four days later, in marshland near Boston's Logan Airport. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>16.</b></font>&nbsp; Little is known about the life of British microbiologist Frederick Griffith. Colleagues described him as brilliant but reclusive, and he published only a few papers on his research, but his landmark paper, published in 1928, secured his place in the annals of scientific history. The paper showed that a nonpathogenic strain of the bacterium <i>Streptococcus pneumonaie</i> could be induced to take on the disease-causing characteristics of a different strain, a finding which formed the foundation of the transforming principle.<p>Griffith's paper drew substantial attention, and by the time of his death in a 1941 Axis bombing of London, further research inspired by his work had led to progress against puerperal fever, scarlet fever, surgical sepsis, and infections from wounds. The ultimate importance of his paper, however, was not truly understood until a decade after his death, as further research by [[Oswald Avery]] and others concluded that the transforming agent is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), and that DNA carries information within the cell. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>15.</b></font>&nbsp; Neurosurgeon and motivational author Ben Carson is one of the world's top pediatric neurosurgeons. On 4-5 September 1987 he led a team of surgeons at Johns Hopkins in a 22-hour operation on 4-5 September 1987, which was the first successful separation of twins conjoined (commonly called Siamese twins) at the back of the head. With several other successful separation surgeries, he has become the world's most respected surgeon in the separation of conjoined twins. In 2003 he performed a rare surgical separation of adult conjoined twins, but neither of the sisters survived the operation.<p> His other surgical accomplishments include the first intra-uterine operation intended to reduce pressure on the brain of a hydrocephalic fetal twin, and the revival of and improvements to a previously discarded surgical technique called hemispherectomy, which involves removal of half of a patient's brain to reduce seizures in persons with severe epilepsy. He is the author of numerous motivational books, and played himself in <i>Stuck on You</i>, [[Bobby Farrelly|Bobby]] and [[Peter Farrelly]]'s comedy about conjoined adult twins. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>14.</b></font>&nbsp; Psychologist Albert Bandura developed the concept of reciprocal determinism to help explain aggression in adolescents. Reciprocal determinism suggests that in addition to the effect of a child's environment on behavior, a child's behavior also alters his/her environment,thus forming a loop wherein behavior &mdash; good or bad &mdash; is reinforced. Bandura s Social Learning Theory builds on both behaviorist and cognitive learning theories, and posits that, through imitation, modeling, and observation, people learn their behaviors from one another. He has also advanced the concept of personality developing as an interaction of behavior, environment, and a person s psychological processes.<p> His landmark experiments, first conducted in 1961, are the so-called "bobo doll studies." Some children at a daycare center witnessed an adult hitting a small, inflatable doll decorated with human or clown imagery (called abobo doll), while other children were not exposed to this play-violence. Children who witnessed this aggression were more likely to be aggressive in their own behavior, both physically and verbally, than children who did not witness the aggression, which many experts maintain demonstrably establishes that aggressive behaviors are learned through observation. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>13.</b></font>&nbsp; Deborah Sampson (sometimes spelled Samson) is believed to have been the first woman to serve as a uniformed member of the United States military, in an era when the idea of a woman soldier was almost unimaginable. She was the eldest of seven children in a colonial American family, but her father abandoned their home and her mother was sickly and unable to provide support, so in early childhood she was raised by family friends. She worked as an indentured servant from the age of 10, and she was 15 but still in servitude when America declared its independence. At her master's home she learned to cook, spin, weave, work farm equipment, and shoot a musket. At 18 she was freed from servitude and worked as a school teacher until 1782.<p> As the Revolutionary War continues she made her first attempt to enlist, binding her breasts to approximate a male physique, wearing a man's clothing and signing up as "Timothy Thayer," but she feared that she had given herself away by holding her quill like a woman. Before her second attempt she studied how men hold pens, then conversed in disguise with her mother, gaining confidence when she was not recognized. She joined the Fourth Massachusetts Regiment of the Continental Army on 20 May 1782, under the name "Robert Shurtleff." She was issued a standard uniform &mdash; a blue coat and cap, white waistcoat, heavy pants and stockings, and boots &mdash, and carried with her, as all soldiers did, a bayonet, firearm, and hatchet, flint and powder, and a backpack weighted heavy with blanket, canteen, and ammunition including buckshot and leaden balls. During her time in the army she was teased for her lack of facial hair, but fellow soldiers assumed that this was because she was a boy in her early teens.<p> On 3 July 1782 she was wounded in battle against the British at Tappan Bay, between Sing Sing and Tarrytown, New York, shot twice by musket balls and taking a sword gash to her head. Medics tended her head wound, but her musket wounds were in her leg and she feared that her gender would be discovered once her pants were removed, so she refused further treatment and limped away from the field clinic. She removed one of the musket balls herself, using a small knife and sewing her own stitches, but the other ball was too deeply embedded for her to treat.<p> Her deception was discovered the following summer when she came down with a "malignant fever", perhaps caused by the musket ball still lodged in her leg. She was near death, when a military surgeon checked her heartbeat by placing his hand on her chest and discovered the binding that held her breasts. After overseeing her recovery, the doctor revealed Sampson's gender in a letter to his superiors, while praising her moral and mental qualities and recounting her military service. She was honorably discharged at West Point on 23 October 1783, but denied her accumulated pay, due at discharge, until she successfully petitioned Governor [[John Hancock]] in 1792. She was also excommunicated by the Baptist Church for her "un-Christian" behavior.<p> After leaving the military she married and raised a family, and worked as a farmer and teacher. She occasionally augmented her family's meager means by lecturing on her wartime experience, wearing her soldier's uniform and concluding by performing the manual of arms with trained precision.<p> Of pioneer ancestry, her great-great-grandmother was Priscilla Mullins Alden, a teenaged passenger on the <i>Mayflower</i> for whom Miles Standish felt an unrequited love, as recounted in [[Henry Wadsworth Longfellow]]'s famous poem "The Courtship of Miles Standish". Another ancestor on her mother's side was [[48467|William Bradford]], Governor of the Plymouth Colony. [[Paul Revere]] was a family friend, and vouched for Sampson's character in successfully arguing that she deserved a military pension of $4 per month. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>12.</b></font>&nbsp; Country singer Ferlin Husky was raised on a Missouri farm, and as a young man worked as a radio performer, disc jockey, and dance hall singer before recording his first hit, "A Dear John Letter," a duet with California singer Jean Shepard in 1953. He had his first solo Top 10 hit in 1955 with "I Feel Better All Over (More Than Anywheres Else)", and his first #1 single with "Gone," which spent ten weeks atop the country charts in 1957 and crossed over to become a hit on the pop charts as well. His biggest hit was the gospel standard "Wings of a Dove," released in 1960, which was his last chart-topper, but he remained a popular and successful country singer through the mid-1970s with minor hits including "Once" (1967), "Just for You" (1968), and "Rosie Cries a Lot" (1973).<p> Early in his career he worked as a honky tonk singer under the name Terry Preston, and for decades he also worked as a comedic performer under the name Simon Crum. As Crum he had a #2 single, "Country Music is Here to Stay," in 1958. He worked as an actor in the 1950s and '60s, and was known for his impressions of peers including [[Johnny Cash]],[[Bing Crosby]], [[Tennessee Ernie Ford]], and [[Kitty Wells]]. He was married and divorced four times, and his companion for the last several years of his life was country singer Leona Williams, ex-wife of [[Merle Haggard]]. Until his death he performed regularly in Branson, Missouri. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>11.</b></font>&nbsp; Simon Conway Morris is a professor of evolutionary paleobiology at the University of Cambridge, best known in scientific circles for his research and writing about the Burgess Shale formation, a fossil field in mountains of British Columbia. He has taken a somewhat middle of the road position on creation, accepting evolution as scientific fact but arguing that convergent evolution (similar biological traits in unrelated lineages, or as Morris puts it, "Many different groups of plants have learned how to become trees") suggests the existence of a creator working through evolution. He has written that the existence of human beings, despite long odds against mankind's existence, is a miracle, and humans "had to exist, exactly as we are." He also maintains that life on other planets is extremely unlikely, but that if such life forms exist those space aliens would have evolved in ways similar to humans on Earth. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>10.</b></font>&nbsp; Engineer and entrepreneur Gordon Moore earned degrees in chemistry and physics from CalTech, was hired by [[William Shockley]]'s Shockley Semiconductor in 1956, and was among the eight key engineers who left Shockley in 1957 to form the pioneering electronics firm, [[@company::fairchild-semiconductor]]. At Fairchild he became one of the world's foremost experts on semiconductive materials, which have much lower resistance to the flow of electrical current in one direction than in the opposite direction, and are used to manufacture diodes, photovoltaic cells, and transistors. In 1968, with [[Robert Noyce]], he co-founded [[@company::intel]], which has since become the world's largest maker of semiconductor chips.<p> In a 1965 article in the trade journal <i>Electronics</i>, Moore noted that the number of transistors that manufacturers could arrange on a single silicon chip had been doubling roughly every year, and said that he expected this trend to continue. Ten years later he updated his prediction, to say that the doubling would occur only every second year. This prediction has since became known as Moore's Law, and decades later it continues to be applicable in the semiconductor industry. In its common, simplified application it now generally refers to the doubling of semiconductor performance every 18 to 24 months.<p> Moore, retired since 1997, has said that he would like his legacy to be "anything but Moore's Law." He has given $600M to CalTech, and $250M to the environmental group Conservation International. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>9.</b></font>&nbsp; Teacher, priest, and scientist Johann Mendel was born in 1822 in what was then Austria (now Czechia). His parents were farmers, and as a boy working on the farm he became fascinated with fruit trees and gardening. He was a brilliant student in grade school, and his family struggled to pay his tuition to high school and, later, the Olmutz Philosophical Institute. When he could not afford to attend university, he instead joined the Augustinian monastery, becoming a priest and adopting the new Christian name Gregor. He twice failed the exams required to become a high school science teacher, but still taught on a part-time basis. He was also assigned work as a hospital chaplain, but found it frustrating and difficult, and soon returned to the monastery.<p> At the monastery Mendel tended the garden, and beginning in 1856 he conducted extensive experiments with pea pod plants, tracking some 28,000 individual plants over several years and focusing his attention on seven basic characteristics of the plants. In his experiments, Mendel crossed peas of different varieties &mdash; tall, short, various seed shapes and colors, etc. &mdash; and kept detailed records of how these characteristics were seen or vanished in subsequent generations. He conducted similar experiments on other plants and on mice, and having been educated in mathematics, Mendel noticed recurring ratios in his analysis of how traits were inherited, ratios which could only be explained through dominance and segregation of genes.<p> In one experiment, for example, Mendel crossed a plant that produces a round seed with a plant which produces a curving, Y-shaped seed, and in each and every one of the resulting plants the seeds were round. In the next generation, however, in which only these round hybrid seeds were planted, 5,474 plants matured bearing round seeds, while 1,850 matured bearing curved seeds &mdash; a ratio of almost exactly 3:1. From this Mendel concluded that the round seed is a dominant trait, inherited from either parent, while the curved seed is a recessive trait, seen only when the dominant trait is absent in both parents.<p> Mendel's mathematics revealed the basic laws of heredity &mdash; that many maternal and paternal traits do not "merge" in the offspring, but are instead passed intact; that some of these characteristics are dominant while other characteristics are recessive; and that the inheritance of such traits obeys simple statistical laws. His short monograph <i>Treatises on Plant Hybrids</i> was published in 1865, and is now recognized as among the most important scientific papers ever written.<p> At the time, however, it was not widely read and its implications were understood only by Mendel. Before his death in 1884 he wrote, "I am convinced that it will not be long before the whole world acknowledges the results of my work," and indeed, in the early 1900s three European botanists, working independently, rediscovered what Mendel had explained some 35 years earlier. His research has come to be seen as the first rigorous, scientific explanation of heredity, and the foundation for modern genetics. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>8.</b></font>&nbsp; Jared Diamond's work spans scientific disciplines including biogeography, ecology, evolutionary biology, linguistics, molecular cell physiology, ornithology, and pre-Columbian pottery. His studies of the mating patterns of New Guinea birds led him to the study of human sexuality, summarized physiologically in his book <i>Why Is Sex Fun?</i>. He also wrote <i>Guns, Germs and Steel</i>, exploring the fallacy of assuming that Eurasians are inherently superior to other peoples, and explaining instead that Europeans and Asians had geographical advantages that allowed them to conquer the rest of the world.<p> Diamond's best-known book, <i>Collapse</i>, explains the pattern followed historically by societies approaching demise, from the Aztec to the Vikings, and challenges the widespread but uninformed assumption that technology can save the Earth's polluted and endangered environment. Late in <i>Collapse</i>, Diamond presents a map of the world's most environmentally damaged and endangered areas, and contrasts it with a map of the world's most politically violent, unstable, and inequitable areas, showing that the two maps are essentially the same, and bolstering his theory that these are two key factors leading societies to the brink of collapse. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>7.</b></font>&nbsp; Biologist and naturalist Ernst Mayr formulated the modern concept of biological species as a group that can interbreed only amongst themselves, in his 1942 treatise <i>Systematics and the Origin of Species</i>. His work crossed scientific disciplines from ornithology to systematics to zoogeography, and was fundamental to the 20th century reconciliation of [[Charles Darwin]]'s theory of evolution by natural selection and [[Gregor Mendel]]'s theory of heredity. He also explained the concept ofallopatric speciation , wherein a single species isolated in two (or more) geographical areas evolves distinct characteristics, eventually becoming distinct and separate species.<p> Mayr wrote extensively on the philosophy and history of biology as a science, and authored more than 700 articles and numerous books. He named 26 new species of birds and dozens of species of orchids, and was a key influence on biophysicist and physiologist Jared Diamond. Mayr retired in 1975, but continued his research and writing for decades. His first scientific paper was published in 1923, and his last book came out in 2005, when he was 100 years of age, just months before his death. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>6.</b></font>&nbsp; American biologist Lynn Margulis has proposed a theory of symbiogenesis, through which inherited variation does not arise principally from random mutations, but is caused instead as new tissues, organs, and even new species evolve primarily through long-term interaction. She maintains that eukaryotes (cell-based organisms, characteristic of all life forms except primitive microorganisms such as bacteria) evolve when various kinds of prokaryotes (unicellular organisms having cells lacking membrane-bound nuclei) bind together to form symbiotic systems which tend to improve their chances for survival. This theory challenges some aspects of neo-[[Charles Darwin|Darwin]]ism, so Margulis' work has been considered controversial in scientific circles.<p> She has also expressed skepticism that HIV is the causing agent of AIDS, and with [[James Lovelock]] she was a key contributor to Gaia theory, which suggests that all life forms on earth are so thoroughly interconnected that the Earth itself can be viewed as one large organic whole. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>5.</b></font>&nbsp; Trofim Lysenko was a Soviet biologist and agronomist who rejected the research of [[Gregor Mendel]], which was then and is now considered a basic foundation of genetics. Instead Lysenko pursued what was called "socialist genetics," politicized science that made him [[Joseph Stalin]]'s favorite scientist. He was placed in charge of the Academy of Agricultural Sciences, overseeing the Soviet Union's entire research program dedicated to increasing crop yields. In 1927 Lysenko reported a stunning breakthrough, describing a new method to fertilize fields without the use of fertilizers or minerals, using a process called vernalization, in which germinating seeds are exposed to low temperatures under conditions allowing scientists to control the plant's flowering time.<p> Vernalization is a proven biological phenomenon, but Lysenko's methodology was the opposite of the scientific method &mdash; he designed his research to reach pre-ordained results, and by habit and policy he ignored any results which did not advance his theories. He claimed that the process of vernalization could be inherited in plants, and reported experiments that supposedly yielded healthy, robust pea plants even in the dead of winter, in plants untreated by vernalization. In the impoverished and frequently frozen Soviet Union, Lysenko's falsified findings were trumpeted widely in state-owned media, and he was portrayed as a hero of the Soviet state. His methods were mandated on collectivised farms across the Soviet Union and throughout the USSR's international sphere of influence, and played a key role in repeated famines that left many millions of Soviet citizens dead and retarded research in the Soviet Union for decades.<p> Under the Soviet system all science was funded by the state, which meant that so long as Lysenko remained in Stalin's good graces it was career suicide for any scientist to dispute him. Few did, and Lysenko's opponents were frequently found in the gulags. Science textbooks were rewritten, with Lysenko's work replacing what he called "alien foreign bourgeois biology," and even after Stalin's death and denunciation by [[Nikita Khrushchev]], Lysenko maintained his position at the apex of Soviet science until the mid-1960s. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>4.</b></font>&nbsp; Molecular biologist Susan L. Lindquist was among the first scientists to propose that proteins could be a non-genetic carrier of inheritance. She has conducted groundbreaking research in protein conformation, showing that most biological processes include alterations in protein conformation, and that numerous heart conditions are related to structural irregularities and the "folding" of proteins &mdash; her work has been described as "unveiling the origami of life." Lindquist's research has advanced the scientific understanding of evolution, gene regulation, and stress tolerance, and has had applications in the study of Alzheimer's disease, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, and bovine spongiform encephalitis, commonly called Mad Cow disease. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>3.</b></font>&nbsp; German engineer and inventor Karl von Linde studied at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, where his teachers included [[Rudolf Clausius]] and [[Franz Reuleaux]], but he was expelled for participation in student protests, and never earned a degree. He worked for several years as an engineer before joining the faculty at Berlin Technical University, and while teaching there he was approached by a friend who worked at a brewery, who askedLinde to develop a reliable system of refrigeration. This became the work that dominated the rest of Linde's life, and secured his place in the history of scientific achievement.<p> Linde invented the first portable compressor refrigerator, a methyl ether refrigeration machine, in 1873, and three years later he designed a more reliable system, the Kühlschrank, which was the first practical ammonia-compressor driven refrigerator. In 1878 he established the Society for Lindes Ice Machines, now the Linde AG conglomerate, which was and remains a leading manufacturer of refrigerators on the European continent. In 1894 he developed a process using the [[James Prescott Joule|Joule]]-[[Lord Kelvin|Thomson]] effect to liquefy gases, and in the following year he used this technique to produce liquid air in mass quantities. In 1902 he and his staff andLinde developed a system that separates liquid oxygen and nitrogen from liquefied air . He died in 1934, but Linde's vapor-compression refrigeration system and liquefaction and separation techniques still form the basis for modern industrial refrigeration systems. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>2.</b></font>&nbsp; Biochemist Richard A. Lerner was for decades a researcher and administrator at the Scripps Research Institute, where he conducted groundbreaking research into protein and peptide structure, the identification of a sleep-inducing lipid, and the chemistry of converting antibodies into enzymes. <DIV align=right><a href="#top"><font size=7>&uarr;</font></a>&nbsp;</DIV><font color=darkred><b>1.</b></font>&nbsp; Considered a founding father of wildlife ecology, Aldo Leopold was fascinated from childhood by the natural world, and learned about the intricacies of natural systems through his own observations and field work, and his studies at Yale. He worked for the US Forest Service, where he proposed establishment of the Gila Wilderness Area in New Mexico in 1922, the first protected wilderness area within the national forest system. He later taught at the University of Wisconsin, where he developed the science and techniques for management and restoration of wildlife populations.<p> His academic work crossed scientific disciplines including sustainable agriculture, wildlife biology, forestry, and zoology, and popularized the concept of a "land ethic," in which humans are part of a natural community, not merely the conqueror of the land. He established programs in which Wisconsin farmers worked with graduate students to collect information and manage wild food growing areas, wild game cropping, windbreaks, and the study of numerous prairie species.<p> He was a co-founder of the Wilderness Society in 1935, and in the same year he put his principles into action by purchasing a dilapidated 80-acre plot of land near Baraboo, Wisconsin, in an area that had been over-logged, burned by several major fires, and grazed so heavily by cattle that virtually no crop was considered feasible. With his wife and children, Leopold made the farm into a new kind of laboratory, where he developed methods for restoring health to this wounded land, eventually transforming the area into a thriving landscape of conifers, hardwoods, and open prairie.<p> On 21 April 1948 he suffered a fatal heart attach while fighting a grass fire near the farm. The following year his magnum opus, <i>A Sand County Almanac</i>, was published, and to date more than two million copies of the book have been sold. The book helped to inspire the environmental movement, and helped form the foundation of ecology as a science. <p>Tyndall, John. 1861. On the absorption and radiation of heat by gases and vapours, and on the physical connection of radiation, absorption, and conduction. Philosophical Magazine, series 4, 22:169-194, 273-285. <A NAME=google custom search></a><div id="cse" style="width: 100%,">Loading</div> <script src="http://www.google.com/jsapi" type="text/javascript"></script> <script type="text/javascript"> google.load('search', '1', {language : 'en'}); google.setOnLoadCallback(function() { var customSearchControl = new google.search.CustomSearchControl('014601306488162765871:j7z5zvvzzjs'); customSearchControl.setResultSetSize(google.search.Search.FILTERED_CSE_RESULTSET); customSearchControl.draw('cse'); }, true); </script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="http://www.google.com/cse/style/look/default.css" type="text/css" /> </TD></TR></TABLE></TD></TR></TABLE></TD></TR></TABLE> <P><A NAME=EastWash></a><A HREF="#top"><img src="http://www.dot.wisconsin.gov/travel/madison/cameras/cam216.jpg" alt="From http://www.511wi.gov/Web/Cameras.aspx?page=2" width="1045" height="772" border="0"></a> BaconGetti<BR> http://www.kitchendaily.com/recipe/barilla-spaghetti-carbonara-140221/ Ingredient-based recipe search: http://www.supercook.com/ HashBrown Casserole http://www.myrecipes.com/recipe/sausage-hash-brown-breakfast-casserole-10000000549864/ http://www.wikihow.com/Win-Friends </BODY></HTML>